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Clinical Research
Uncorrected Proof. Available online 16 June 2026

The global burden and future projections of intracerebral hemorrhage: An analysis of trends from 1990 to 2036

La carga global y las proyecciones futuras de la hemorragia intracerebral: un análisis de las tendencias de 1990 a 2036
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Jingyi Xiea,1, Xiang Gaob,1, Songquan Wanga,1, Laizhao Chena,
Corresponding author
chenlaizhao@163.com

Corresponding author.
a Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, PR China
b Department of Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Yanbian University, Yanbian Korea Autonomous Prefecture, PR China
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Abstract
Objective

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a severe stroke subtype with high global mortality and morbidity. This study quantifies the global burden and time trend of ICH from 1990 to 2021, and constructs a predictive model for 2036. We focus on health disparities to inform targeted prevention and intervention.

Methods

Utilizing Global Burden of Disease data, this study evaluated ICH incidence, prevalence, mortality, and disability-adjusted life years from 1990 to 2021. The study examined global, regional, and national levels. The estimated annual percentage change quantified trends. Frontier analysis examined variations by development. A Bayesian age-period-cohort model projected future burden. These methods provide a more comprehensive and actionable assessment than previous studies.

Results

The global burden of ICH increased substantially in absolute numbers from 1990 to 2021, with incident cases and deaths rising by 46.05% and 41.29%, respectively. In 2021, ICH caused 3,308,367 deaths [95% uncertainty interval (UI): 3,021,075–3,594,725]. However, age-standardized rates showed a consistent decline over time, with the age-standardized incidence rate was 40.83 (95% UI: 36.20–45.21) and the mortality rate was 39.09 (95% UI: 35.65–42.25) per 100,000, respectively. The burden of ICH was strongly associated with socio-demographic development. Lower Socio-demographic Index (SDI) regions bearing disproportionately higher mortality and DALY burdens. In contrast, higher SDI regions generally exhibited declining trends in age-standardized rates.

Conclusions

ICH remains a critical global public health challenge. Although the overall age-standardized burden has decreased, pronounced disparities persist, especially in less developed regions. Focused public health action, equitable resource distribution, and stronger health systems are critical to closing these gaps.

Keywords:
Intracerebral hemorrhage
Global Burden of Disease
Global incidence
Global mortality
GBD 2021
Resumen
Antecedentes

La hemorragia intracerebral (HIC) es un subtipo grave de accidente cerebrovascular con alta mortalidad y morbilidad a nivel mundial. Este estudio cuantifica la carga global y la tendencia temporal de la HIC entre 1990 y 2021, y construye un modelo predictivo hasta 2036. Nos centramos en las desigualdades en salud para orientar estrategias de prevención e intervención específicas.

Métodos

Utilizando los datos del Global Burden of Disease, se evaluaron la incidencia, prevalencia, mortalidad y los años de vida ajustados por discapacidad (DALY) de la HIC entre 1990 y 2021. El análisis abarcó niveles globales, regionales y nacionales. El cambio porcentual anual estimado (EAPC) se utilizó para cuantificar las tendencias. El análisis de frontera examinó las variaciones según el nivel de desarrollo. Un modelo bayesiano de edad-período-cohorte se empleó para proyectar la carga futura. Estos métodos proporcionan una evaluación más completa y aplicable que estudios previos.

Resultados

La carga global de la HIC aumentó sustancialmente en números absolutos entre 1990 y 2021, con incrementos del 46,05% en los casos incidentes y del 41,29% en las muertes. En 2021, la HIC causó 3.308.367 muertes [intervalo de incertidumbre (UI) del 95%: 3.021.075–3.594.725]. Sin embargo, las tasas estandarizadas por edad mostraron un descenso sostenido a lo largo del tiempo: la tasa de incidencia estandarizada por edad fue de 40,83 (UI del 95%: 36,20–45,21) y la tasa de mortalidad fue de 39,09 (UI del 95%: 35,65–42,25) por 100.000 habitantes. La carga de la HIC se asoció fuertemente con el nivel de desarrollo sociodemográfico. Las regiones con bajo índice sociodemográfico (SDI) soportaron de manera desproporcionada mayores tasas de mortalidad y carga de DALY. En contraste, las regiones con alto SDI mostraron generalmente tendencias descendentes en las tasas estandarizadas por edad.

Conclusión

La HIC sigue siendo un desafío crítico de salud pública a nivel mundial. Aunque la carga global estandarizada por edad ha disminuido, persisten marcadas desigualdades, especialmente en regiones menos desarrolladas. Es fundamental implementar acciones de salud pública focalizadas, una distribución equitativa de recursos y el fortalecimiento de los sistemas de salud para reducir estas brechas.

Palabras clave:
Hemorragia intracerebral
Carga global de la enfermedad
Incidencia global
Mortalidad global
GBD 2021

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