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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Throughout neurosurgical history&#44; the treatment of intrinsic lesions located in the brainstem has been subject to much debate&#46; Until the early 1970s&#44; this pathology was considered inoperable due to its location&#46; The brainstem is the anatomical structure of the central nervous system &#40;CNS&#41; with the highest concentration of nuclei and fibres&#44; and simple manipulation can lead to significant morbidity and death&#46; From a neurosurgical point of view&#44; identifying &#8216;safe entry zones&#8217; that minimise the occurrence of further deficits for the patient has been an important line of study&#46; Throughout this in-depth analysis&#44; after understanding the internal organisation of the brainstem&#44; a clear division between motor and sensory pathways has been identified&#44; and it is in this transitional space that the safe entry zones to the brainstem have been sought&#46; Here it is worth highlighting the figure of Professor Evandro de Oliveira&#44; considered a great reference in the anatomical and microneurosurgical study of the brainstem&#44; who conducted numerous trials on access to and treatment of this complex region of the CNS&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#8211;7</span></a></p><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Neurosurgical context of work on the brainstem</span><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Brainstem lesions are of great medical significance&#44; as vascular and even cancerous lesions occur predominantly in young patients &#40;aged 20&#8211;40 years&#41;&#46; Moreover&#44; the natural history of such lesions in the brainstem is often catastrophic in the short to medium term&#44; so it is imperative to find an optimal treatment to reduce morbidity and mortality rates&#46; Nowadays&#44; thanks to advances in radiological imaging techniques&#44; these intrinsic brainstem lesions are very often diagnosed in subjects with few symptoms&#44; and it is not unusual for them to be chance findings&#46; A better understanding of the natural history of the vast majority of lesions located in the brainstem has led to microsurgical treatment now being recommendable&#46;</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In 1939&#44; Bailey declared brainstem lesions to be a gloomy chapter in neurosurgery in terms of postoperative outcome&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> Thirty years later&#44; Matson et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> still considered these lesions to be inoperable&#46; It was from the 1980s onwards that we began to see brainstem surgery being performed for the treatment of lesions mainly of vascular and tumour origin&#46; Early results were not very encouraging as these treatments had a high complication rate&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#8211;7</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In 2008&#44; a groundbreaking anatomical study led by de Oliveira was published describing &#39;safe entry zones&#39; to the brainstem&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> They defined three anatomical regions in which there are fewer nuclei and fibres of neurological tissue important to neurological function&#46; By accessing the brainstem via these routes&#44; the risk of morbidity and death is greatly minimised&#46; A safe entry zone was described for the midbrain &#40;lateral mesencephalic sulcus&#41;&#44; for the pons &#40;peritrigeminal area&#41; and for the medulla oblongata &#40;olivary body&#41; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#46; All these regions are located on the anterolateral surface&#44; as in the brainstem the motor pathways are ventral and the sensory pathways dorsal&#46; The safe entry zones are therefore located in the transitional zone between these two major groups of long pathways&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Currently&#44; there are numerous approaches described for accessing the brainstem depending on the part to be treated&#46; Our study focuses on access to the anterolateral side of the medulla oblongata where the olivary body is located&#44; this being one of the &#39;safe entry zones&#39;&#46; Throughout neurosurgical history&#44; access to the lower brainstem region has been the subject of a great deal of study and concern in the aim to achieve safe exposure while minimising surgical risks&#46; This anatomical area is essential for maintaining neurological function and it is also surrounded by vascular structures and cranial nerves &#40;CN&#41;&#44; which are essential for the functioning of the body&#46; Therefore&#44; having optimal approaches that provide sufficient exposure to treat safely is crucial for good clinical outcomes postoperatively &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#fig0005">Figs&#46; 1 and 2</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#8211;7&#44;10&#8211;13</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For the treatment of non-exophytic pathology of the medulla oblongata&#44; there are two main approaches&#58; the retrosigmoid and the far-lateral &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig&#46; 3</a>&#41;&#46; There are major differences between these two approaches in terms of techniques&#44; surgical time&#44; positioning and associated morbidity&#44; to name but a few&#44; but they both enable exposure of the olivary body&#44; albeit in different ways&#46; However&#44; to date&#44; after reviewing the literature&#44; there is no real quantification of the degree of exposure for each of the approaches&#46; The focus of our study was therefore to determine the differences in angle of attack&#44; working distance and exposure surface for each approach&#44; in order to help choose the most appropriate management&#46; Other approaches have been described&#44; but have been rejected because of their limited use and greater limitations in exposing the olivary body&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2&#44;14</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Our study compares the retrosigmoid and far-lateral transcondylar approaches&#46; In recent years&#44; authors such as Spetzler have considered these approaches to be the two main ways of accessing the olivary body&#44; without stating a preference of one over the other&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2&#44;14</span></a></p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Our aim with this study was to carry out an anatomical study using cadaveric specimens in order to objectively compare the particular features of each approach and to evaluate the real differences in the treatment of the olivary body&#59; in short&#44; to objectively establish the superiority of one approach over the other beyond the individual subjectivity of the neurosurgeon&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Material and methods</span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Working material</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In total&#44; 80&#37; of the anatomical dissections were performed in Microsurgery and Neuroanatomy Laboratory A&#46; The laboratory currently has three workstations&#44; two surgical microscopes&#44; microsurgical equipment&#44; a three-pin craniostat &#40;DORO&#174;&#44; Integra LifeSciences Corporation&#44; Plainsboro&#44; New Jersey&#44; USA&#41;&#44; suction system and equipment and photographic technology for 2D and 3D photography of the dissections and procedure&#46; The rest of the dissections were performed in Microsurgery and Neuroanatomy Laboratory B&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Cadaveric specimens</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Eleven heads and four brainstems &#40;superior section above the superior colliculus and inferior section at the upper cervical spinal cord&#41; were used to complete this study&#46; For the study of brainstem anatomy&#44; four brainstems &#40;eight olivary bodies&#41; were prepared according to Klingler&#39;s technique for the study of the white fibre&#46; This involved specimens being fixed in 10&#37; formaldehyde for a minimum of 60 days&#44; then the arachnoid was removed before freezing at &#8722;16&#176;<span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">C</span> for a minimum of 14 days&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15&#44;16</span></a> To simulate the surgical approaches&#44; a total of 10 heads &#40;40 approaches&#41; of adult cadaveric specimens with no known history of cranial or cerebral pathology were used&#44; previously fixed with 10&#37; formaldehyde for a minimum of 60 days and injected with silicone&#58; red for the arterial vessels and blue for the venous system&#46; In each of the heads&#44; four approaches were performed as follows&#58; first a retrosigmoid approach and then a far-lateral transcondylar approach&#44; finally leaving an opening from the transverse sinus to C2 along the skull base where both approaches could be evaluated simultaneously and individually&#46; The same procedure was then repeated on the other side&#46; The heads studied in the laboratory were subjected to multi-slice computed tomography &#40;CT&#41; studies before and after the approaches were carried out&#46; These studies were performed with ethical approval&#44; using a CT scanner with multi-slice imaging capability &#40;Siemens Somatom go&#46; All from Siemens Medical Systems&#44; Inc&#46;&#44; Erlangen&#44; Germany&#41;&#46; After the studies were obtained and the approaches carried out in the specimens&#44; the image analyses were transferred to the Stealth Viz Treon station &#40;Medtronic Surgical Navigation Technologies&#44; Louisville&#44; USA&#41; for neuronavigation in the laboratory&#46;</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">After each approach was completed&#44; direct measurements were taken of the data of interest&#58; working distance to the olivary body&#44; angle of attack and exposure surface&#46; There are many limitations to the recording of these estimates&#44; including technical difficulties in recording &#40;the small exposed field and target depth represented a limitation given the characteristics of the direct measurement systems&#41; and inter-observer variability&#46; For these reasons&#44; in our experience&#44; data obtained on anatomical specimens by direct measurement alone cannot be extrapolated to neurosurgical practice&#46; We therefore completed this research work by taking indirect measurements of the cadaveric specimens by neuronavigation&#46; We applied the neuronavigation after performing thin-slice CT scans on each specimen&#46; Indirect data collection was carried out with the workstation&#44; identifying the reference points obtained from the dissections and surgical simulations&#46; These points were located in the three orthogonal planes &#40;axial&#44; sagittal and coronal&#41; and by processing the distance and angle calculations using the neuronavigator interface &#40;cranial 4&#46;0&#41; &#40;Medtronic Surgical Navigation Technologies&#44; Louisville&#44; USA&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Moreover&#44; given the limited sample size when using cadaveric specimens&#44; it was decided to increase the sample size by using brain magnetic resonance imaging &#40;MRI&#41; scans of patients with no known previous cranial or brain pathology&#46; High-resolution MRI &#40;3DT2&#44; multi-slice&#44; 0&#46;8-mm thick&#41; had been used&#46; With Horos&#174; medical imaging processing software &#40;Horos Project&#44; Brooklyn&#44; New York&#44; USA&#41;&#44; we analysed 30 MRI scans &#40;60 sides&#41; using anatomical landmarks defined after dissection of the anatomical specimens&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Anatomical dissection of the retrosigmoid approach</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The retrosigmoid approach dates back to when Dandy<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> used a lateral suboccipital craniotomy for the resection of a cerebellopontine angle tumour&#46; A standard craniotomy of approximately 30&#8239;&#215;&#8239;30&#8239;mm with superior limit of the transverse sinus and anterior limit of the sigmoid sinus was performed on all specimens &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#8211;22</span></a> By means of the retrosigmoid approach&#44; we were able to expose the three neurovascular groups of the cerebellopontine angle described by Rhoton &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a>&#58; superior neurovascular complex &#40;4th cranial nerve &#91;CN IV&#93; &#91;trochlear&#93;&#44; CN V &#91;trigeminal&#93;&#44; superior cerebellar artery and the superior petrosal venous complex&#41;&#44; middle neurovascular complex &#40;CN VI &#91;external oculomotor&#93;&#44; CN VII &#91;facial&#93;&#44; CN VIII &#91;vestibulocochlear&#93; and the anteroinferior cerebellar artery&#41; and the inferior neurovascular complex &#40;CN IX &#91;glossopharyngeal&#93;&#44; CN X &#91;vagus&#93;&#44; CN XI &#91;accessory&#93;&#44; CN XII &#91;hypoglossal&#93; and the posteroinferior cerebellar artery&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#44;23&#8211;25</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Anatomical dissection of the far-lateral approach</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The far-lateral approach includes dissection of the cervical-occipital musculature&#44; performing a lateral suboccipital craniotomy with resection of the posterior arch of the atlas&#44; resection of the occipital condyle&#44; dural opening and intradural work&#46; For this research study&#44; a standard craniotomy was performed for the common far-lateral approach described in the literature&#46; Following the protocol&#44; a lateral suboccipital craniotomy was performed on all specimens&#44; exposing the sigmoid and transverse sinuses with opening of the foramen magnum&#46; The posterior arch of C1 was resected from the posterior tubercle to its lateral transverse process&#46; After performing the lateral suboccipital craniotomy and disassembly of the posterior arch of C1&#44; the approach was completed in all specimens using the transcondylar variant &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">Fig&#46; 5</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19&#8211;22&#44;26&#8211;30</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Data collection protocol</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Once the approaches had been performed on the anatomical specimens&#44; a protocol for measurement and data collection was designed&#46; Anatomical landmarks were selected at each approach that could be identified on MRI and CT studies &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">Fig&#46; 6</a>&#41;&#46; These points were selected on the basis of surgical experience and observations during cadaver dissections&#46; The calculation of the vectors between these points in orthogonal space enabled us to calculate the working distances&#44; exposure surface and angle of attack to the olivary body&#46; After completing the anatomical study and obtaining data on all the approaches&#44; we decided to extend the sample by using high-definition MRI &#40;3DT2&#44; multi-slice&#44; 0&#46;8-mm thick&#41; of anonymous patients without cranial or cerebral pathology&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0030"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Thirty MRI scans &#40;60 olivary bodies&#41; were used&#44; which were uploaded in DICOM &#40;Digital Imaging and Communication In Medicine&#41; format into the Horos&#174; medical image processing software &#40;&#39;Free DICOM image viewer&#39;&#41;&#46; This software allows the visualisation of medical images &#40;for example&#44; MRI&#44; CT&#41; and also features a multitude of 2D and 3D tools for image processing&#46; It has a 3D viewer that enables different types of reconstructions&#44; such as volumetric reconstruction and multiplanar reconstruction &#40;MPR&#41;&#46; MPR made it possible to analyse the images in the three orthogonal planes &#40;axial&#44; coronal and sagittal&#41;&#46; This meant we were able to select &#39;region of interest&#39; &#40;ROI&#41; at the anatomical points of interest and to obtain the Cartesian coordinates in the three axes &#40;X&#44; Y and Z&#41;&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Data collection protocol for the retrosigmoid approach</span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0110">Anatomical landmarks for the retrosigmoid approach</span><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A circle 30&#8239;mm in diameter is defined&#44; representing the dimensions of a standard craniotomy with its most superior point in the transverse sinus and its most anterolateral point in the sigmoid sinus&#46;</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point A&#58;</span> most superior point of the olivary body&#46;</p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point B&#58;</span> most inferior point of the olivary body&#46;</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point C&#58;</span> point at the level of the pre-olivary &#40;anterolateral&#41; sulcus cutting the axial plane where point T is located&#46;</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point D&#58;</span> point at the level of the retro-olivary sulcus cutting the axial plane where point T is located&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point E&#58;</span> anterolateral point in contact with the sigmoid sinus of the predefined circle&#46;</p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point F&#58;</span> cranial point in contact with the transverse sinus of the predefined circle&#46;</p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point G&#58;</span> central point of the predefined circle&#46;</p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point T &#40;target&#41;&#58;</span> point equidistant in the coronal plane between points A and B&#44; and point equidistant between points C and D in the coronal plane&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0115">Data collection protocol for the far-lateral approach</span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0120">Anatomical landmarks for the far-lateral approach</span><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point A&#58;</span> most superior point of the olivary body&#46;</p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point B&#58;</span> most inferior point of the olivary body&#46;</p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point C&#58;</span> point at the level of the pre-olivary &#40;anterolateral&#41; sulcus cutting the axial plane where point T is located&#46;</p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point D&#58;</span> point at the level of the retro-olivary sulcus cutting the axial plane where point T is located&#46;</p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point H&#58;</span> most superior and lateral point at the dural entry point of the vertebral artery&#46;</p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point I&#58;</span> most basal and medial point of the sigmoid sinus cutting the coronal plane where point H is defined&#46;</p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point J&#58;</span> point on the coronal plane equidistant between H and I&#46; Central working point for the approach&#46;</p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point K&#58;</span> to define point K&#44; a hemisphere is defined whose base is the diameter of the distance between point H and I&#46; Point K will be the point on the semicircle whose radius is perpendicular to the base&#46;</p><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Point T &#40;target&#41;&#58;</span> point on the coronal plane equidistant between points A and B&#44; and point equidistant between points C and D on the coronal plane&#46;</p><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">These anatomical points were used for direct measurements on cadaveric specimens &#40;distances and exposure surface&#41;&#44; indirect measurements with the use of magnetic neuronavigation on cadaveric specimens &#40;distances and exposure surface&#41; and estimations made on high-definition MRI studies &#40;distances&#44; exposure surface and angle of attack&#41;&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0125">Quantitative analysis of the neurovascular content of the T-G and T-J routes</span><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">After obtaining the main routes to the olivary body for each approach and analysing the respective distances and angles&#44; a quantitative analysis of the neurovascular content was carried out&#46; The routes from point T &#40;target&#44; centre of the olivary body&#41; to the central point on the surface were analysed for each of the approaches&#59; point G &#40;in the retrosigmoid approach&#41; and point J &#40;in the far-lateral approach&#41;&#46; We used Medtronic StealthStation S7 software with Cranial 4&#46;0 interface &#40;Medtronic Surgical Navigation Technologies&#44; Louisville&#44; USA&#41;&#46; We used the same 30 MRI scans used in the previous sections&#46; These 30 MRI scans were uploaded in DICOM format to the Medtronic StealthStation software for processing and working on the images&#46; The content was analysed in the T-G route for 60 retrosigmoid approaches &#40;30 left and 30 right&#41; and in the T-J route for 60 far-lateral approaches &#40;30 left and 30 right&#41;&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0130">Statistical analysis of the data</span><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The study analyses the working distance from the surface of the approaches to the most representative areas of the target at depth &#40;continuous quantitative variable&#41;&#44; the angle of attack to the target &#40;continuous quantitative variable&#41;&#44; the surface area of exposure &#40;continuous quantitative variable&#41; and the number of neural and vascular structures present in the central trajectory &#40;discrete quantitative variable&#41;&#46; All these parameters constitute the primary research variables&#46; The data from the different measurements were analysed with the statistical software SPSS version 22&#46;0 for Windows and with the Microsoft&#174; Office Excel &#40;spreadsheet&#41; application &#40;Redmond&#44; Washington&#44; USA&#41; processed with the macOS Catalina 10&#46;15&#46;3 operating system &#40;Apple Inc&#46;&#44; California&#44; USA&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The inferential analysis consists of using a linear model to compare mean angles and distances between one approach and another using generalised estimating equations &#40;GEE&#41;&#46; This is a generalisation of the paired <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span>-test for correlated data&#59; having both sides of each specimen&#44; there is an underlying intra-subject relationship&#46; The result of the Wald <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">X</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span> statistic was taken into account and 95&#37; confidence intervals &#40;CI&#41; for the mean differences are given&#46; For the study of the number of structures in the trajectories&#44; a non-parametric Brunner-Langer model was applied&#44; given the ordinal scale of the variables and the same intra-patient correlation &#40;two-sided&#41;&#46; The significance level used in the analyses was 5&#37; &#40;&#945;&#8239;&#61;&#8239;0&#46;05&#41;&#46; Any <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>-value less than &#46;05 is indicative of a statistically significant association&#46; Conversely&#44; a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>-value greater than or equal to &#46;05 indicates no association&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0135">Results</span><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Thanks to experimental work on cadaveric specimens&#44; using the retrosigmoid approach&#44; the far-lateral approach and microsurgical dissection from the surface to the olivary body&#44; we are able to define the particularities of the working channel and the neurovascular elements involved for each approach&#46;</p><span id="sec0080" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0140">Design of the working channel to the olivary body</span><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The initial aim of the anatomical work was to define and delimit a viewing and working channel&#46; To construct this channel&#44; two circular surfaces were delimited&#58; one at depth&#44; which included the entire olivary body &#40;target&#41;&#44; and one at surface &#40;entry window&#41;&#44; which offered the largest possible viewing angle to our target at depth&#46; After completing each approach&#44; the olivary body was delimited at depth &#40;the target of our approach&#41; by selecting four points&#58; superior &#40;A&#41;&#44; inferior &#40;B&#41;&#44; anterior &#40;C&#41; and posterior &#40;D&#41;&#46; By joining these points &#40;A&#44; B&#44; C and D&#41;&#44; an oval was created that included the entire olivary body&#44; constituting the floor of the working &#40;target&#41; channel at depth&#46;</p><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For the retrosigmoid approach we obtained two surfaces&#58; a larger superficial surface corresponding to the entry window &#40;delimited by points E and F&#41; and a smaller deep surface corresponding to the target &#40;delimited by points A&#44; B&#44; C and D and encompassing the entire olivary body&#41;&#46; By joining the two surfaces together&#44; a working channel with the shape of a truncated cone was constructed&#46; This cone was generated by rotating an imaginary rectangular trapezoid&#44; taking its side perpendicular to the two surfaces as the axis of rotation &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig&#46; 7</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0035"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For the far-lateral approach&#44; the superficial surface &#40;entry window&#41; of the working channel was delimited from the most suitable projection for access to the olivary body&#46; Knowing the depth location of our target&#44; the goal of the surface entry point was to achieve as basal and lateral a projection as possible&#46; The result was a shallow window in the shape of a semi-oval&#46; We used two surface points that were fundamental in the study to delimit this semi-oval and orientate the working projection&#58; point H&#44; at the dural entry point of the vertebral artery&#59; and point I&#44; the most basal and medial point of the sigmoid sinus&#46; The rectilinear junction of these two defines the base of the semi-oval&#44; the most basal area of the working channel&#46; It is of interest to know that this basal limit corresponds to the path of the spinal or accessory nerve &#40;CN XI&#41; located 1&#8722;2&#8239;mm inferior to the working channel&#46; The most superior point of the semi-oval was delimited by the height of the suboccipital surface of the cerebellum&#46; Once the deep and superficial surfaces of the working channel were identified&#44; they were joined together to obtain the morphology of the working channel for the far-lateral approach&#46; In this case&#44; the result was a half truncated cone with the target at the deep surface where the entire olivary body was included &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0040">Fig&#46; 8</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0040"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0085" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0145">Quantification of working distances&#44; angles of attack and olivary body area for each of the two approaches</span><p id="par0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Both specimen and MRI distances &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0045">Fig&#46; 9</a>&#41; were measured using the Wald <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">X</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span> statistical test of the EEG model to assess whether or not the distances to each landmark were equal between the two approaches&#46; For either landmark&#44; the distance with the far-lateral approach is significantly less than that achieved with the retrosigmoid approach &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#8239;&#60;&#8239;&#46;001&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0045"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As with the distances&#44; the Wald <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">X</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span> statistical test of the EEG model was used&#46; With the far-lateral approach&#44; the angles of attack are significantly greater than with the retrosigmoid approach &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#8239;&#60;&#8239;&#46;001&#41; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0050">Fig&#46; 10</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0050"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0090" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0150">Quantification of the neurovascular content in the route to the olivary body for each of the approaches</span><p id="par0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In terms of relative frequencies&#44; the route of the far-lateral approaches intersected with fewer neural and more vascular formations&#46; In contrast&#44; more neural than vascular structures were interposed in the retrosigmoid approach &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0055">Fig&#46; 11</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0055"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0230" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">An ANOVA-Type-Statistic &#40;ATS&#41; test of the Brunner-Langer model was used to analyse the neural structures&#46; The conclusion was that significantly fewer neural structures are found with the far-lateral approach compared to the retrosigmoid approach &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#8239;&#60;&#8239;&#46;001&#41;&#46; This was true for both the right and the left side &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#8239;&#61;&#8239;&#46;477&#41;&#44; i&#46;e&#46; no interaction was detected&#46; The same analysis was used for vascular structures &#40;ATS test of the Brunner-Langer model&#41;&#46; The conclusion was that a significantly higher number of vascular structures were found with the far-lateral approach compared to the retrosigmoid approach &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#8239;&#60;&#8239;&#46;001&#41;&#46; This was also true for both the right and left side &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span>&#8239;&#61;&#8239;&#46;235&#41;&#44; i&#46;e&#46; no interaction was detected&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0095" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0155">Discussion</span><p id="par0235" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For the treatment of intrinsic brainstem lesions that can be safely resected via the olivary body&#44; we undertook to find out whether or not there were any differences in the technical and ergonomic aspects between the two main approaches used in neurosurgical practice for this purpose&#58; the retrosigmoid and the far-lateral&#46;</p><p id="par0240" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This context was transferred to the microsurgery laboratory where we were able to simulate the procedures&#44; identifying the main aspects for planning and carrying out this study&#46; With the use of properly pre-treated anatomical specimens&#44; a methodological model was designed and the anatomical points of interest were identified three-dimensionally&#44; in addition to analysing the peculiarities of each of the approaches&#46; This research could not have been carried out without planning and laboratory work on the cadavers&#44; and we therefore consider this phase of the research to be the basis for the effective execution of the study&#46; However&#44; the reality is that access to anatomical specimens is very limited&#46; For that reason&#44; to increase the validity of our study&#44; we carried out a second phase of research using MRI scans of anonymised individuals with no known cranial or cerebral pathology&#46; It is important to highlight that the use of neuronavigation in the laboratory not only facilitated the recording of measurements&#44; but also served as a transition between the cadaveric and radiological studies&#46;</p><span id="sec0100" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0160">Extracranial and extradural phase</span><p id="par0245" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The extracranial phase of the retrosigmoid approach is less technically complex than the far-lateral approach&#44; as the skin incision is smaller and it is simply necessary to dissect the periosteal flap located around the asterion craniometric point&#44; partially disinserting the sternocleidomastoid muscle&#46; This dissection has no impact on the post-surgical stability of the craniocervical junction&#46; However&#44; although the neurosurgeon is more familiar with the retrosigmoid approach as it is more often used in other surgical indications&#44; such as for the treatment of 8th cranial nerve &#40;acoustic&#41; neuromas&#44; it does have its particularities and a high degree of technical complexity&#46; As with the far-lateral approach&#44; one of the most common complications of the retrosigmoid approach is cerebrospinal fluid fistula&#46; Leakage through the incision is due to communication of the subarachnoid space with the outside through the edges of the craniotomy and&#44; in the case of cerebrospinal fluid &#40;CSF&#41; rhinorrhoea&#44; the problem is due to communication of the subarachnoid space with the middle ear through open mastoid cells&#46; The pneumatised mastoid cells are opened in a large number of approaches by reaming out the mastoid portion lining the most basal region of the sigmoid sinus&#46; Compared to the far-lateral approach&#44; in the retrosigmoid approach there is a greater need to ream the mastoid portion of the temporal bone&#44; so the number of exposed mastoid cells is generally greater&#46; According to the literature&#44; the overall incidence of fluid fistula ranges from 7&#37; to 10&#37; in retrosigmoid approaches and 11&#37;&#8211;17&#37; in the far-lateral approach&#46; As will be discussed later&#44; the higher incidence for the far-lateral approach is not due to a higher rate of leakage through the mastoid cells&#44; but rather to an increased likelihood of fluid fistula through the craniotomy&#46; There are several hypotheses for this&#44; but the most widely accepted are those that point to greater dissection in the cisterns and arachnoids located at the craniocervical junction&#44; where variations in fluid pressures may be a contributory factor&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#44;23&#8211;30</span></a></p><p id="par0250" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">To gain access to the anterolateral aspect of the brainstem where the olivary body is located&#44; the approach was completed using the transcondylar variant&#46; Resecting the occipital condyle allows a more lateral and basal trajectory to be created&#44; increasing the viewing angle and minimising the working distance to the target&#46; However&#44; the greater the resection of the condyle&#44; the greater the risk of occipito-cervical instability&#46; The C0-C1 joint is of great importance in range of motion in all three axes&#58; flexion-extension &#40;FE&#41;&#44; axial rotation &#40;AR&#41; and lateralisation &#40;L&#41;&#46; Vishteh et al&#46; examined the biomechanics of the occipito-cervical junction after progressive unilateral resection of the occipital condyle&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> They reported significant hyper-mobility in all three movements&#44; FE&#44; AR and L&#44; after the resection of 50&#37; of the condyle&#46; However&#44; as we demonstrated in the anatomical work&#44; the hypoglossal canal limits the extent of resection&#44; which generally remains well below 50&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26&#8211;30&#44;32</span></a> Historically&#44; the hypoglossal canal has been used as an entry point to the medial region of the condyle&#46; The risk of occipito-cervical instability was considered to be minimal if the resection of the condyle did not exceed the posterior limits of the hypoglossal canal&#46; Under this consideration&#44; Vishteh et al&#46; recommended occipito-cervical fixation if more than 50&#37; of the condyle was resected&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> Biomechanically&#44; this concept is still valid today&#44; but anatomical studies to date show that the hypoglossal canal is not always located at the midpoint of the occipital condyle&#44; so it cannot be used as the only limit for assessing the risk of instability&#46; In up to 22&#37; of the population the canal may be in the anterior third of the condyle &#40;generating a high risk of cranio-cervical instability if a transcondylar approach is performed&#41;&#46; Therefore&#44; taking the hypoglossal canal as a reference is not a reliable measure to assess the risk of future occipito-cervical instability&#44; as in a small percentage of cases where the canal is located in a more anterior position&#44; we may resect more than 50&#37;&#46; One aspect to bear in mind therefore is that&#44; if we do not take the hypoglossal canal as the limit&#44; the reference that marks the limit of anterior resection will be the volume necessary to allow the dura mater to be pulled back in a straight line and without prominences from the most basal and medial point of the sigmoid sinus to the dural entry point of the vertebral artery &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0060">Fig&#46; 12</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31&#8211;33</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0060"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0105" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0165">Intradural phase &#40;working channel&#41;</span><p id="par0255" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In skull base surgery&#44; the main objective of the selected approach is to achieve as short a working distance to the target as possible with a sufficiently wide window&#44; i&#46;e&#46; to make the pathology more superficial&#46; In neurosurgery&#44; the great anatomical complexity of the structures and their functional importance makes it essential to minimise working distances as far as possible&#44; optimise exposure and avoid any possible surgical aggression&#46; However&#44; we generally have to be aware that despite minimising working distances&#44; structures can still get in our way&#44; where simple manipulation can cause serious functional disorders postoperatively&#46; Assessing the risk-benefit ratio of the different approach options is imperative in order to achieve the best outcomes&#46;</p><p id="par0260" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">After completing both approaches&#44; each of the working channels evaluated in the anatomical specimens was able to expose the entire olivary body within the deep surface of the channel &#40;target&#41;&#44; so we can consider that the individualised qualitative results for each working channel were satisfactory without producing significant neurovascular lesions in the specimens that would contraindicate or advise against either approach&#46; The far-lateral approach is technically very demanding in the extradural phase&#44; due to the great complexity of the bony&#44; muscular and vascular structures present as described above&#59; in contrast&#44; the technical difficulties in the intradural phase&#44; centred on the working channel&#44; are minor compared to the retrosigmoid approach&#46; The working channel obtained from a far-lateral approach has a wider entry window and a greater angle of attack to the olivary body&#44; so also adding the fact that the proximity to the target &#40;olivary body&#41; is greater&#44; these aspects benefit the microsurgical manoeuvrability and safety of the procedure&#46;</p><p id="par0265" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The distance from the surface of the retrosigmoid approach for either point is approximately 1&#46;5 to three times greater than that for a transcondylar far-lateral approach&#46; However&#44; there is a region where the distances of the retrosigmoid approach are equal to the minimum difference compared to the far-lateral approach&#58; the superior and medial region of the olivary body&#46; It is here that the results of the working channel distances for the retrosigmoid approach are closer to the far-lateral&#44; although they are still longer&#46; Therefore&#44; other variables come into play in this region of the olivary body&#44; such as the angle of attack &#40;not as favourable for the retrosigmoid&#41; or the extradural phase of the approach &#40;better for the retrosigmoid&#41;&#46; This would mean a loss of ergonomics as a trade-off for a technically simpler&#44; anatomically more conservative approach &#40;less incision&#44; fewer exposed planes&#44; smaller craniotomy&#44; less exposed dural surface&#44; less complex reconstruction and closure&#41; and with a lower rate of extracranial complications&#46; The working distance alone should not be sufficient to decide which of the two approaches provides the best conditions for access to the olivary body&#44; as the angles of attack and the contents of the working channel must also be analysed&#46;</p><p id="par0270" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The neurovascular structures identified en route to the target are also relevant to the morbidity and mortality rates associated with the approach&#44; in addition to those inherent in and around the bulb of the brainstem&#46; In our opinion&#44; it is therefore essential to count the number and type of structures present in order to select the most suitable approach&#46; In terms of the elements to be manipulated&#44; it is worth noting the difference between the microsurgical management of a neural structure and a blood vessel&#44; primarily arterial&#46; The CN are sensitive neural structures where minimal manipulation can result in permanent or transient lesions&#46; In contrast&#44; blood vessels are structures which&#44; when properly dissected from the surrounding arachnoid adhesions&#44; do permit some manipulation and mobility&#44; and even transposition away from the surgical pathway&#46; Arterial vessels have thick&#44; relatively strong and elastic walls&#44; so the likelihood of causing severe injury under microscopic control is much lower compared to a neural structure&#46; However&#44; we must not forget that manipulation can lead to rupture&#44; vasospasm or thrombosis&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0110" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0170">Conclusions</span><p id="par0275" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">1</span><p id="par0280" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Experimentation on cadavers in the microsurgery laboratory provides the experience and anatomical information necessary to properly analyse the information obtained by other techniques&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2</span><p id="par0285" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The anatomical landmarks obtained in the cadaveric study were the basis for the design of this research&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">3</span><p id="par0290" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The extradural phase of the far-lateral transcondylar approach requires more skin and muscle dissection&#44; more bone work and disruption of the C0-C1 joint&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0020"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">4</span><p id="par0295" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the far-lateral approach&#44; resection of the occipital condyle and disruption of the nuchal musculature can lead to craniocervical instability requiring instrumented fixation&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0025"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">5</span><p id="par0300" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The extradural phase of the retrosigmoid approach&#44; despite the complexity of exposing the venous sinuses and mastoid cells&#44; involves less skin and muscle dissection and a smaller craniotomy&#46; All this without altering the stability of the cranio-cervical junction&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0030"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">6</span><p id="par0305" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The geometric shapes obtained are a truncated cone for the retrosigmoid approach and a truncated semi-cone for the far-lateral approach&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0035"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">7</span><p id="par0310" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Working distances in the far-lateral approach are significantly shorter than with the retrosigmoid approach&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0040"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">8</span><p id="par0315" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The angles of attack are significantly greater in the far-lateral approach than in the retrosigmoid approach&#44; thus providing a better field for microsurgery&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0045"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">9</span><p id="par0320" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Differences in both working distances and angles of attack&#44; although still better with the far-lateral approach&#44; are minimised in the superior region of the olivary body&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0050"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">10</span><p id="par0325" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Through the working channel of the far-lateral approach&#44; the likelihood of finding one or more CN is 55&#37;&#44; and finding one or more vascular structures&#44; 98&#37;&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0055"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">11</span><p id="par0330" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Through the working channel of the retrosigmoid approach&#44; the likelihood of finding one or more CN is 99&#37;&#44; and finding one or more vascular structures&#44; 53&#46;3&#37;&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0060"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">12</span><p id="par0335" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The far-lateral approach provides better conditions for the microsurgical treatment of bulbar and medullary intrinsic lesions approached through the inferior half of the olivary body&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0065"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">13</span><p id="par0340" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In cases of bulbar and medullopontine lesions approached through the superior half of the olivary body&#44; the retrosigmoid approach may be considered for selected cases&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0070"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">14</span><p id="par0345" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The surgical application of the conclusions drawn from this anatomical work warrants clinical studies to support or refute our results&#46;</p></li></ul></p></span><span id="sec0115" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0175">Funding</span><p id="par0350" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">None&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0120" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0180">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0355" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Introduction"
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              "titulo" => "Neurosurgical context of work on the brainstem"
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              "titulo" => "Quantification of the neurovascular content in the route to the olivary body for each of the approaches"
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          "titulo" => "Discussion"
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              "titulo" => "Extracranial and extradural phase"
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    "fechaRecibido" => "2023-06-11"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2023-08-27"
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      "en" => array:3 [
        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Objectives</span><p id="spar0110" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Throughout neurosurgical history&#44; the treatment of intrinsic lesions located in the brainstem has been subject of much controversy&#46; The brainstem is the anatomical structure of the central nervous system &#40;CNS&#41; that presents the highest concentration of nuclei and fibers&#44; and its simple manipulation can lead to significant morbidity and mortality&#46; Once one of the safe entry points at the medulla oblongata has been established&#44; we wanted to evaluate the safest approach to the olivary body &#40;the most used safe entry zone on the anterolateral surface of the medulla oblongata&#41;&#46; The proposed objective was to evaluate the working channel from the surface of each of the far lateral and retrosigmoid approaches to the olivary body&#58; distances&#44; angles of attack and channel content&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0015">Material and methods</span><p id="spar0115" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">To complete this work&#44; a total of 10 heads injected with red&#47;blue silicone were used&#46; A total of 40 approaches were made in the 10 heads used &#40;20 retrosigmoid and 20 far lateral&#41;&#46; After completing the anatomical study and obtaining the data referring to all the approaches performed&#44; it was decided to expand the sample of this research study by using 30 high-definition magnetic resonance imaging of anonymous patients without cranial or cerebral pathology&#46; The reference points used were the same ones defined in the anatomical study&#46; After defining the working channels in each of the approaches&#44; the working distances&#44; angle of attack&#44; exposed surface&#44; and the number of neurovascular structures present in the central trajectory were analyzed&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0020">Results</span><p id="spar0120" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The distances to the cranial and medial region of the olivary body were 52&#46;71&#8239;mm &#40;SD 3&#46;59&#41; from the retrosigmoid approach and 27&#46;94&#8239;mm &#40;SD 3&#46;99&#41; from the far lateral&#59; to the most basal region of the olivary body&#44; the distances were 49&#46;93 &#40;SD 3&#46;72&#41; from the retrosigmoid approach and 18&#46;1&#8239;mm &#40;SD 2&#46;5&#41; from the far lateral&#46; The angle of attack to the caudal region was 19&#46;44&#176; &#40;SD 1&#46;3&#41; for the retrosigmoid approach and 50&#46;97&#176; &#40;SD 8&#46;01&#41; for the far lateral approach&#59; the angle of attack to the cranial region was 20&#46;3&#176; &#40;SD 1&#46;22&#41; for the retrosigmoid and 39&#46;9&#176; &#40;SD 5&#46;12&#41; for the far lateral&#46; Regarding neurovascular structures&#44; the probability of finding an arterial structure is higher for the lateral far&#44; whereas a neural structure will be more likely from a retrosigmoid approach&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Conclusions</span><p id="spar0125" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">As conclusions of this work&#44; we can say that far lateral approach presents more favorable conditions for the microsurgical treatment of intrinsic bulbar and bulbomedullary lesions approached through the caudal half of the olivary body&#46; In those cases of bulbar and pontine-bulbar lesions approached through the cranial half of the olivary body&#44; the retrosigmoid approach can be considered for selected cases&#46;</p></span>"
        "secciones" => array:4 [
          0 => array:2 [
            "identificador" => "abst0005"
            "titulo" => "Objectives"
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          1 => array:2 [
            "identificador" => "abst0010"
            "titulo" => "Material and methods"
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          2 => array:2 [
            "identificador" => "abst0015"
            "titulo" => "Results"
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          3 => array:2 [
            "identificador" => "abst0020"
            "titulo" => "Conclusions"
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      "es" => array:3 [
        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Antecedentes y objetivo</span><p id="spar0130" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">A lo largo de la historia neuroquir&#250;rgica&#44; el tratamiento de lesiones intr&#237;nsecas localizadas en el tronco cerebral ha sido tema de mucha controversia&#46; El tronco cerebral es la estructura anat&#243;mica del sistema nervioso central &#40;SNC&#41; que presenta mayor concentraci&#243;n de n&#250;cleos y fibras&#44; y su simple manipulaci&#243;n puede conllevar importante morbi-mortalidad&#46; Una vez establecido uno de los puntos de entrada seguros a nivel bulbar&#44; hemos querido evaluar el abordaje m&#225;s seguro a la oliva bulbar &#40;la principal zona de entrada segura a la regi&#243;n anterolateral del bulbo raqu&#237;deo&#41;&#46; El objetivo planteado fue evaluar el canal de trabajo desde la superficie de cada uno de los abordajes <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">far lateral</span> y retrosigmoideo hasta la oliva bulbar&#58; distancias&#44; &#225;ngulos de ataque y contenido del canal&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Materiales y m&#233;todos</span><p id="spar0135" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Para completar el presente trabajo se utilizaron un total de 10 cabezas inyectadas con silicona rojo&#47;azul&#46; Se realizaron un total de 40 abordajes en las 10 cabezas utilizadas &#40;20 retrosigmoideos y 20 <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">far lateral</span>&#41;&#46; Tras completar el estudio anat&#243;mico y obtener los datos referentes a todos los abordajes realizados&#44; se decidi&#243; ampliar la muestra del presente estudio de investigaci&#243;n mediante el uso de 30 resonancias magn&#233;ticas de alta definici&#243;n de pacientes an&#243;nimos sin patolog&#237;a craneal ni cerebral&#46; Los puntos referenciales utilizados fueron los mismos definidos en los estudios anat&#243;micos&#46; Tras definir los canales de trabajo en cada uno de los abordajes se analizaron las distancias de trabajo&#44; &#225;ngulo de ataque&#44; superficie de exposici&#243;n y el n&#250;mero de estructuras neurovasculares presentes en el trayecto central&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Resultados</span><p id="spar0140" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Las distancias para la regi&#243;n craneal y medial de la oliva bulbar fueron de 52&#44;71&#8239;mm &#40;DT 3&#44;59&#41; para el abordaje retrosigmoideo y de 27&#44;94&#8239;mm &#40;DT 3&#44;99&#41; para el<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">far lateral</span>&#59; para la regi&#243;n m&#225;s basal de la oliva bulbar las distancias fueron de 49&#44;93 &#40;DT 3&#44;72&#41; para el abordaje retrosigmoideo y de 18&#44;1&#8239;mm &#40;DT 2&#44;5&#41; para el <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">far lateral</span>&#46; El &#225;ngulo de ataque para la regi&#243;n caudal fue de 19&#44;44&#176; &#40;DT 1&#44;3&#41; para el abordaje retrosigmoideo y de 50&#44;97&#176; &#40;DT 8&#44;01&#41; para el abordaje <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">far lateral</span>&#59; el &#225;ngulo de ataque para la regi&#243;n craneal fue de 20&#44;3&#176; &#40;DT 1&#44;22&#41; para el retrosigmoideo y de 39&#44;9&#176; &#40;DT 5&#44;12&#41; para el <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">far lateral</span>&#46; En cuanto a las estructuras neurovasculares la probabilidad de encontrar una estructura arterial es m&#225;s alta para el <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">far lateral</span>&#44; en cambio una estructura neural ser&#225; m&#225;s probable desde un retrosigmoideo&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Conclusiones</span><p id="spar0145" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Como conclusiones de este trabajo podemos decir que el abordaje far lateral presenta condiciones m&#225;s favorables para el tratamiento microquir&#250;rgico de lesiones intr&#237;nsecas bulbares y bulbomedulares abordadas a trav&#233;s de la mitad caudal de la oliva bulbar&#46; En aquellos casos de lesiones bulbares y bulboprotuberanciales abordadas a trav&#233;s de la mitad craneal de la oliva bulbar&#44; el abordaje retrosigmoideo puede ser considerado para casos seleccionados&#46;</p></span>"
        "secciones" => array:4 [
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Anterolateral view of the medulla oblongata for the study of the microsurgical anatomy of the olivary body&#46;</p> <p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">1&#41; pons&#59; 2&#41; external oculomotor nerve &#40;CN VI&#41;&#59; 3&#41; medullopontine sulcus&#59; 4&#41; supra-olivary pit&#59; 5&#41; petrosal surface of cerebellum&#59; 6&#41; anterior medullary pyramid&#59; 7&#41; anterior median sulcus&#59; 8&#41; pre-olivary sulcus&#59; 9&#41; olivary body&#59; 10&#41; retro-olivary sulcus&#59; 11&#41; lower CN &#40;CN IX and CN X&#41;&#59; 12&#41; hypoglossal nerve &#40;CN XII&#41;&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Anatomical dissection of the brainstem to show the safe entry zone at the level of the medulla oblongata through the olivary body &#40;described by Oliveira in 2008&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#92;</span>&#46;</p> <p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Image A&#58; anterolateral view of the most caudal region of the brainstem where the olivary body is located &#40;4&#41;&#46; The dashed blue line marks the neurotomy area for safe entry and treatment of intrinsic pathology at this level&#46; Image B&#58; Axial slice through the olivary body&#46; The red arrow shows the working corridor&#46; 1&#41; pons&#59; 2&#41; external oculomotor nerve &#40;CN VI&#41;&#59; 3&#41; medullary pyramid&#59; 4&#41; olivary body&#59; 5&#41; anterolateral or pre-olivary sulcus&#44; hypoglossal nerve &#40;CN XII&#41;&#59; 6&#41; posterolateral or retro-olivary sulcus&#44; lower CN &#40;CN IX and CN X&#41;&#59; 7&#41; spinal nerve &#40;CN XI&#41;&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Surgical images of both retrosigmoid and far-lateral approaches&#46; A&#46; Retrosigmoid approach after dural opening and dural suspension stitches&#46; B&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Far-lateral</span> approach in its extradural phase&#46; We can see the exposure of the V3 segment of the vertebral artery referenced with a red vessel loop&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Anatomical dissection of the posterior fossa simulating the view from a retrosigmoid approach to visualise the three neurovascular compartments described by Rhoton&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a></p> <p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">1&#41; sigmoid sinus&#59; 2&#41; transverse sinus&#59; 3&#41; vertebral artery &#40;V3&#41;&#59; 4&#41; tentorium&#59; 5&#41; trigeminal nerve&#59; 6&#41; superior petrosal vein complex&#59; 7&#41; superior cerebellar artery&#59; 8&#41; vestibulocochlear and facial nerves&#59; 9&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">abducens</span> nerve&#59; 10&#41; lower cranial nerves&#59; 11&#41; olivary body&#59; 12&#41; posteroinferior cerebellar artery&#59; 13&#41; trochlear nerve&#59; 14&#41; middle cerebellar peduncle&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">View of the approach after dural opening&#46;</p> <p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Our field of vision and work will be limited to the lower third of the opening&#46; 1&#41; external occipital crest&#59; 2&#41; inferior nuchal line&#59; 3&#41; transverse sinus&#59; 4&#41; sigmoid sinus&#59; 5&#41; mastoid process&#59; 6&#41; right cerebellar hemisphere&#59; 7&#41; cerebellar tonsil&#59; 8&#41; posteroinferior cerebellar artery &#40;PICA&#41;&#59; 9&#41; spinal nerve &#40;CN XI&#41;&#59; 10&#41; segment V3 of the vertebral artery&#59; 11&#41; posterior arch of C1&#59; 12&#41; posterior rim of the foramen magnum&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Delineation of all anatomical landmarks used in this research study&#46;</p> <p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Yellow denotes the points that delimit the target in the olivary body&#46; Green denotes the surface points for the retrosigmoid approach from a craniotomy of approximately 30&#8239;&#215;&#8239;30&#8239;mm &#40;green circumference&#41;&#46; The surface points for the far-lateral approach are shown in blue&#44; with the surface configuration of the semi-oval &#40;blue&#41; to delimit point K&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0060" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Representation of the working channel with truncated cone geometry for the retrosigmoid approach&#46;</p> <p id="spar0065" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">We constructed two surfaces&#58; a larger superficial surface bounded by points E and F&#59; and a smaller deep surface bounded by points A&#44; B&#44; C and D that encompassed the entire olivary body&#46; By joining these two surfaces&#44; the geometrical structure of a truncated cone was constructed&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0070" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Design of the half truncated cone-shaped working channel used in the far-lateral approach&#46;</p> <p id="spar0075" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">In the image we can see the superficial surface or entrance window &#40;green&#41; and the deep surface or target &#40;blue&#41;&#44; the junction of which gives a half truncated cone-shaped canal&#46; 1&#41; suboccipital surface of the cerebellum&#59; 2&#41; cerebellar tonsil&#59; 3&#41; posteroinferior cerebellar artery &#40;PICA&#41;&#59; 4&#41; olivary body&#59; 5&#41; hypoglossal nerve &#40;CN XII&#41;&#59; 6&#41; vertebral artery in its V4 segment&#59; 7&#41; lower cranial nerves &#40;CN IX and CN X&#41;&#59; 8&#41; sigmoid sinus&#59; 9&#41; vertebral artery in its extradural V3 segment&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0080" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Distances from the surface of each of the approaches to the target&#58; MRI measurement&#46;</p> <p id="spar0085" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">MRI&#58; magnetic resonance imaging&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0090" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Angles of attack from the surface of each of the approaches to the target&#58; MRI measurement&#46;</p> <p id="spar0095" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">MRI&#58; magnetic resonance imaging&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0100" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Number of neural and vascular structures by approach&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0105" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Reaming of the occipital condyle&#46; This CT image shows the resection of the right condyle up to the hypoglossal canal&#44; as was done in all the anatomical specimens in this study&#46; However&#44; thanks to this study we have been able to show that it is not necessary to resect to the hypoglossal canal to increase the angle of vision&#44; as it is only necessary to resect enough to allow the dura mater to be pulled back flat and without any prominences between the junction of the dural entry point of the vertebral artery and the most basal and medial point of the sigmoid sinus&#46; We have illustrated this concept with a diagram over the left occipital condyle&#46; The yellow line marks the trajectory and location of the hypoglossal canal and the blue line indicates the anterior limit of the resection sufficient to flatten the prominences of the condyle that limit the angle of vision&#46; The trajectory of this resection can be planned taking the midpoint of the clivus at this level as a reference&#44; as following a trajectory that joins the anterior point of the resection to the clivus would be sufficient to obtain the widest possible viewing angle&#46; Therefore&#44; the green surface marked on the left condyle would indicate the avoidable resection&#44; meaning that we could reduce a high percentage of post-surgical cranio-cervical instability&#46;</p>"
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    "bibliografia" => array:2 [
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Vol. 35. Issue 3.
Pages 152-163 (May - June 2024)
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Vol. 35. Issue 3.
Pages 152-163 (May - June 2024)
Special article
Olivary body exposure through far lateral and lower retrosigmoid approaches. Comparative analysis of the exposed surface and angle of attack
Exposición de la oliva bulbar mediante los abordajes far lateral y retrosigmoideo bajo. Análisis comparativo de la superficie expuesta y ángulo de ataque
Pau Capilla-Guascha,b,c,
Corresponding author
paucg89@hotmail.com

Corresponding author.
, Vicent Quilis-Quesadaa,b,c,d, Félix Pastor-Escartína,b, Diego Tabarés Palacína,b, Juan Pablo Valencia Salazara,b, José M. González-Dardera,b
a Departamento de Neurocirugía, Hospital Clínico Universitario de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
b Laboratorio de Microneurocirugía, Departamento de Anatomía y Embriología Humana, Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
c Laboratorio de Microneurocirugía, Arkansas Neuroscience Institute (ANI), Arkansas, USA
d Clínica Mayo, Florida, USA
Article information
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Abstract
Objectives

Throughout neurosurgical history, the treatment of intrinsic lesions located in the brainstem has been subject of much controversy. The brainstem is the anatomical structure of the central nervous system (CNS) that presents the highest concentration of nuclei and fibers, and its simple manipulation can lead to significant morbidity and mortality. Once one of the safe entry points at the medulla oblongata has been established, we wanted to evaluate the safest approach to the olivary body (the most used safe entry zone on the anterolateral surface of the medulla oblongata). The proposed objective was to evaluate the working channel from the surface of each of the far lateral and retrosigmoid approaches to the olivary body: distances, angles of attack and channel content.

Material and methods

To complete this work, a total of 10 heads injected with red/blue silicone were used. A total of 40 approaches were made in the 10 heads used (20 retrosigmoid and 20 far lateral). After completing the anatomical study and obtaining the data referring to all the approaches performed, it was decided to expand the sample of this research study by using 30 high-definition magnetic resonance imaging of anonymous patients without cranial or cerebral pathology. The reference points used were the same ones defined in the anatomical study. After defining the working channels in each of the approaches, the working distances, angle of attack, exposed surface, and the number of neurovascular structures present in the central trajectory were analyzed.

Results

The distances to the cranial and medial region of the olivary body were 52.71 mm (SD 3.59) from the retrosigmoid approach and 27.94 mm (SD 3.99) from the far lateral; to the most basal region of the olivary body, the distances were 49.93 (SD 3.72) from the retrosigmoid approach and 18.1 mm (SD 2.5) from the far lateral. The angle of attack to the caudal region was 19.44° (SD 1.3) for the retrosigmoid approach and 50.97° (SD 8.01) for the far lateral approach; the angle of attack to the cranial region was 20.3° (SD 1.22) for the retrosigmoid and 39.9° (SD 5.12) for the far lateral. Regarding neurovascular structures, the probability of finding an arterial structure is higher for the lateral far, whereas a neural structure will be more likely from a retrosigmoid approach.

Conclusions

As conclusions of this work, we can say that far lateral approach presents more favorable conditions for the microsurgical treatment of intrinsic bulbar and bulbomedullary lesions approached through the caudal half of the olivary body. In those cases of bulbar and pontine-bulbar lesions approached through the cranial half of the olivary body, the retrosigmoid approach can be considered for selected cases.

Keywords:
Olivary body
Approaches
Retrosigmoid
Far lateral
Cavernoma
Microsurgery
Resumen
Antecedentes y objetivo

A lo largo de la historia neuroquirúrgica, el tratamiento de lesiones intrínsecas localizadas en el tronco cerebral ha sido tema de mucha controversia. El tronco cerebral es la estructura anatómica del sistema nervioso central (SNC) que presenta mayor concentración de núcleos y fibras, y su simple manipulación puede conllevar importante morbi-mortalidad. Una vez establecido uno de los puntos de entrada seguros a nivel bulbar, hemos querido evaluar el abordaje más seguro a la oliva bulbar (la principal zona de entrada segura a la región anterolateral del bulbo raquídeo). El objetivo planteado fue evaluar el canal de trabajo desde la superficie de cada uno de los abordajes far lateral y retrosigmoideo hasta la oliva bulbar: distancias, ángulos de ataque y contenido del canal.

Materiales y métodos

Para completar el presente trabajo se utilizaron un total de 10 cabezas inyectadas con silicona rojo/azul. Se realizaron un total de 40 abordajes en las 10 cabezas utilizadas (20 retrosigmoideos y 20 far lateral). Tras completar el estudio anatómico y obtener los datos referentes a todos los abordajes realizados, se decidió ampliar la muestra del presente estudio de investigación mediante el uso de 30 resonancias magnéticas de alta definición de pacientes anónimos sin patología craneal ni cerebral. Los puntos referenciales utilizados fueron los mismos definidos en los estudios anatómicos. Tras definir los canales de trabajo en cada uno de los abordajes se analizaron las distancias de trabajo, ángulo de ataque, superficie de exposición y el número de estructuras neurovasculares presentes en el trayecto central.

Resultados

Las distancias para la región craneal y medial de la oliva bulbar fueron de 52,71 mm (DT 3,59) para el abordaje retrosigmoideo y de 27,94 mm (DT 3,99) para elfar lateral; para la región más basal de la oliva bulbar las distancias fueron de 49,93 (DT 3,72) para el abordaje retrosigmoideo y de 18,1 mm (DT 2,5) para el far lateral. El ángulo de ataque para la región caudal fue de 19,44° (DT 1,3) para el abordaje retrosigmoideo y de 50,97° (DT 8,01) para el abordaje far lateral; el ángulo de ataque para la región craneal fue de 20,3° (DT 1,22) para el retrosigmoideo y de 39,9° (DT 5,12) para el far lateral. En cuanto a las estructuras neurovasculares la probabilidad de encontrar una estructura arterial es más alta para el far lateral, en cambio una estructura neural será más probable desde un retrosigmoideo.

Conclusiones

Como conclusiones de este trabajo podemos decir que el abordaje far lateral presenta condiciones más favorables para el tratamiento microquirúrgico de lesiones intrínsecas bulbares y bulbomedulares abordadas a través de la mitad caudal de la oliva bulbar. En aquellos casos de lesiones bulbares y bulboprotuberanciales abordadas a través de la mitad craneal de la oliva bulbar, el abordaje retrosigmoideo puede ser considerado para casos seleccionados.

Palabras clave:
Oliva bulbar
Abordajes
Retrosigmoideo
Far lateral
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