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receives weak or at least controversial support in the literature&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0450"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14&#44;15</span></a> The enormous geographic variability in the rate of surgical indication<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0460"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16&#44;17</span></a> for discogenic low back pain and also in sciatica due to LDH render this type of procedure among the worst indicated of those performed&#44; especially when it is accompanied by any spinal fusion technique&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Moreover&#44; degenerative spine surgery is expensive and inevitably associated with a certain degree of morbidity&#46; At present&#44; there is a large number of devices and implants that are used in surgery for LDH and in other degenerative osteodiscal diseases&#46; In addition&#44; in recent decades&#44; new surgical techniques have been developed&#44; such as percutaneous and minimally invasive approaches &#40;MIS&#41;&#46; However&#44; to date&#44; no technique seems to significantly improve upon the results obtained by classic discectomy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0470"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a></p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Degenerative spine disease surgery&#44; and LDH surgery in particular&#44; is not immune to the influence of the pharmaceutical industry&#46; Conflicts of interest often arise in this type of disease&#44; to which some spinal surgeons are susceptible&#46; The reasons for this appear to vary and are often related to the powerful commercial machinery and the incentives provided by this industry&#46; In an interesting book&#44; Peter C&#46; G&#248;tzsche &#40;a prestigious Danish researcher and a co-founder of the Cochrane Collaboration&#41; gathered and analysed multiple examples in the literature of scientific scandals and frauds in relation to this type of procedure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0475"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a></p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The objective of this study is to review&#44; from a critical point of view and with an approach rooted in evidence-based medicine &#40;EBM&#41;&#44; the main questions regarding the natural history and therapeutic modalities used to manage LDH&#46; The study also raises and discusses the problem of conflicts of interest in relation to LDH surgery&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Procedure</span><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A literature review was performed using MEDLINE database searches &#40;<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed">http&#58;&#47;&#47;www&#46;ncbi&#46;nlm&#46;nih&#46;gov&#47;pubmed</a>&#41;&#44; up to June 2016&#44; using these MeSH terms&#58; &#8220;herniated disc&#8221;&#44; &#8220;sciatica&#8221;&#44; &#8220;radiculopathy&#8221;&#44; &#8220;cauda equina syndrome&#8221;&#44; &#8220;discectomy&#8221;&#44; &#8220;natural history&#8221;&#44; &#8220;evidence-based medicine&#8221;&#44; &#8220;evidence-based practice&#8221;&#44; &#8220;minimally invasive surgical procedures&#8221;&#44; &#8220;conflict of interest&#8221;&#44; &#8220;spinal fusion&#8221; and combinations thereof&#46; Studies pertinent to the topic of discussion were identified by reading their abstracts&#46; These studies&#8217; lists of references were reviewed in order to perform the most complete review possible&#46; Clinical trial studies&#44; prospective cohort studies&#44; meta-analyses&#44; systematic reviews&#44; clinical practice guidelines&#44; overviews and clinical series with extensive casuistry were analysed preferentially&#44; though not exclusively&#46; A copy of the full text &#40;in English or Spanish&#41; of each study selected was obtained through the electronic bibliographical resources at the study site&#46; Study selection as well as information extraction and analysis were performed as agreed upon by all authors&#46; The first author performed the review of the final version of the manuscript&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Evidence-based surgery</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">At present&#44; EBM is based on three fundamental pillars&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0480"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> First&#44; on critical and systematic review of the published literature&#44; that is to say&#44; on organised recapitulation of the clinical&#8211;epidemiological information that supports the use of a therapy for a certain disease&#46; Second&#44; on the clinical judgement or interpretation of the responsible physician of that evidence and his or her own experience&#46; That is to say&#44; on recognition and consideration of the specific circumstances that serve as the framework for that scientific evidence and degree of applicability in the environment in which the physician works&#46; Third&#44; on consideration of the patient&#39;s own values&#46; The objective of EBM is to provide the best possible therapeutic option for the disease of each individual patient&#46; Of course&#44; the usefulness of this approach is limited by the quality of the methodology and the biases present in the studies available&#44; bearing in mind that&#44; as Resnick eloquently affirmed&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0480"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> &#8220;the absence of proof cannot be equated with the proof of absence&#8221;&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">LDH has been treated throughout recent decades using multiple therapies&#44; many of which have already been abandoned due to their doubtful efficacy or morbidity&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a> shows a list of those therapies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0485"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> The use of EBM methodology to search for studies that support or endorse the various therapies used in LDH reveals a striking lack of publications whose design and methods allow solid conclusions to be drawn&#44; in almost any aspect of the natural history and treatment of LDH&#44; or which allow the actual effectiveness of the various therapeutic options to be distinguished&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0450"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14&#44;22&#8211;24</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Terminology</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In general&#44; the term &#8220;sciatica&#8221; is used to refer to pain radiating to the lower limbs with lumbar nerve root distribution&#46; It is also commonly referred to as low back pain radiating to the lower limbs&#46; The term &#8220;radiculalgia&#8221; is used in cases of pain with a radicular distribution&#44; and the term &#8220;radiculopathy&#8221; is reserved for cases which have some sort of sensory and&#47;or motor abnormality with a radicular pattern&#44; with or without associated pain&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The terms &#8220;hernia&#8221; and &#8220;herniation&#8221; refer to displacement of disc material &#40;part of the nucleus pulposus and&#47;or annulus fibrosus&#41; beyond the normal anatomical limits of the disc space&#46; The degree of disc displacement is currently classified from a radiological point of view<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> as&#58; bulging disc&#44; in which the annulus fibrosus simply exceeds the anatomical limit of the disc&#59; protrusion&#44; when the displacement of the herniated portion measures less than the base of this portion&#59; extrusion&#44; when the displacement of the herniated portion measures more than the base of this portion&#44; and disc sequestration&#44; in which the herniated portion completely loses contact with the disc of origin&#46; This terminological distinction is key when analysing the results of studies comparing various therapies&#44; as a drawback common to many studies is a certain clinical&#8211;radiological heterogeneity among groups compared to one another&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0425"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9&#8211;13</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Natural history of lumbar disc hernia</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The usual clinical manifestation of LDH is sciatica&#46; Some 30&#8211;40&#37; of the population suffers from sciatica at some point&#44; especially between the fourth and fifth decades of life&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0505"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> Sciatica is defined as pain that originates in the gluteal area and radiates along the pathway of the sciatic nerve&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> The most common cause is compression of a lumbar nerve root by protruding&#44; extruded or sequestered herniated disc material&#46; It can be affirmed that 85&#37; of cases of sciatica are caused by intervertebral disc conditions&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0510"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a> although there are more uncommon and rare causes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> In general&#44; the L5 and S1 nerve roots&#44; corresponding to the L4L5 and L5S1 discs&#44; tend to be affected&#44; whether due to the hernia itself or due to osteoarthritic changes in the vicinity&#46;</p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The origin of the pain is not entirely known&#44; but it is assumed that it may be due to direct impairment of the spinal nerve root or lymph node or to an effect of local inflammatory cytokines&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> Radiculopathy of discal origin seems to be a mixed mechanical and biochemical process in which contact between material from the nucleus pulposus and the nerve root causes inflammation which&#44; accompanied by mechanical compression&#44; is responsible for the pain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0515"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a> Even so&#44; it is a fact that many disc hernias are incidental findings on MRI in completely asymptomatic patients&#46; Therefore&#44; mere disc displacement does not seem to directly account for the pain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0520"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> However&#44; a recent meta-analysis by Brinjikji et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0525"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> demonstrated that radiological confirmation of bulging disc&#44; disc degeneration&#44; extrusion&#44; protrusion&#44; Modic type 1 changes and spondylosis are more prevalent findings in adults under 50 years of age with low back pain compared to asymptomatic individuals&#46;</p><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Usual clinical course of sciatica and radiculopathy</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The typical case of sciatica caused by an LDH &#40;generally dorsolateral&#41; is unilateral pain starting in the posterior medial gluteal area or lumbar area that radiates through the lateral aspect &#40;L5&#41; or posterior aspect of the thigh &#40;S1&#41; to the foot&#46; It may have a sudden onset&#44; with or without a recognisable triggering factor&#44; or a slow onset&#46; Hernias that compress the L4 nerve root tend to cause pain through the anterolateral aspect of the thigh&#46; The pain may be bilateral in some hernias with a preferentially central location or in cases of associated stenosis or spondylolisthesis&#44; and may be part of a syndrome of neurogenic claudication&#46; The pain tends to worsen with Valsalva manoeuvres&#44; and paraesthesia along the dermatome of distribution of the nerve root is common&#46; Sensory signs and motor deficits are not that common&#44; although some patients may experience initial symptoms of foot drop &#40;L5&#41; or gluteal weakness when walking &#40;S1&#41;&#46; Low back pain accompanies sciatic pain in a not-insignificant percentage of cases&#46;</p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The majority of cases of sciatica caused by LDH resolve without any treatment&#46; The patient rests to some degree for the first few days&#44; depending on his or her level of discomfort&#44; until the pain improves enough for the patient to continue his or her usual activities&#46; Bed rest&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0410"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> NSAIDs&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0415"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> oral or systemic glucocorticoids&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0420"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> epidural injections of steroids&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0530"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a> opiates and other medications &#40;antiepileptics&#44; antidepressants&#44; muscle relaxants&#41; do not seem to be very effective in treating sciatic pain&#44; or in any case their effectiveness is limited&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> The benefits of physical therapy and various types of back exercises are difficult to determine&#44; and there is no specific recommendation beyond promotion of early mobilisation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0535"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31&#44;32</span></a> In general&#44; no modality of physical therapy seems to surpass all others&#44; and gradual mobilisation of the lumbar spine &#40;&#8220;as discomfort permits&#8221;&#41; as well as strengthening of the axial musculature in general and the muscles that stabilise the spine in particular tend to be recommended&#46;</p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Sciatica tends to resolve or substantially improve in the first 2 weeks&#44; such that less than 25&#37; of patients continue to experience pain after 3 months&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0545"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> It is known that both people who undergo surgery for an LDH and people who do not undergo such surgery have similar pain levels after one year&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0425"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Although conservative treatment is a suitable option in the majority of cases&#44; the fact is that LDH surgery provides more significant and above all faster relief&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0550"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> Emergency surgical treatment has classically been indicated in patients with massive disc extrusions that cause acute cauda equina syndrome with sphincter impairment&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0555"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> The effect of surgery on neurological recovery is more doubtful in patients with debilitating sciatica &#40;see below&#41;&#46; As a general rule&#44; from the start&#44; conservative and&#47;or rehabilitative treatment of radiculopathy is promoted&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0400"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Cost-effectiveness studies show substantial savings for cohorts that undergo surgery compared to cohorts that receive conservative treatment&#46; This is essentially due to shortening of pain duration&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0560"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> although some of these studies have methodological limitations&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0565"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a> It is interesting that&#44; using lumbar MRI images obtained one year after onset of symptoms&#44; it does not seem to be possible to determine which patients experienced an improvement in sciatica and which patients did not&#46; Such a distinction also cannot be demonstrated between individuals belonging to cohorts that undergo surgery and individuals belonging to cohorts that do not&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0570"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Spontaneous regression of protruded&#44; extruded and sequestered discs</span><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A relatively high percentage of disc hernias regress from a radiological point of view&#46; This is all the more common the more extruded and sequestered the disc fragment is&#46; According to a systematic review by Chiu et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0575"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a> among conservatively treated patients&#44; the rate of spontaneous regression was 96&#37; for disc sequestrations&#44; 70&#37; for extrusions&#44; 41&#37; for protrusions and just 13&#37; for bulging disc&#46; In addition&#44; the rate of complete disappearance of LDH was 34&#37; for sequestrations and 15&#37; for extrusions&#46; A study by Macki et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0580"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a> gathered 53 cases of disc sequestration and concluded that there is a significant discrepancy between average time to resolution of symptoms &#40;1&#46;3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;3 months&#41; and time to radiological resolution &#40;9&#46;7<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>13&#46;3 months&#41;&#46; It also concluded that although the form of presentation of disc sequestrations is the same as that of all other subtypes of LDH&#44; radiological resolution is likely to be significantly faster than in all other subtypes&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Role of neurological examination in lumbar disc hernia</span><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">According to a Cochrane review by Van der Windt et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0585"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> in 2010&#44; the majority of physical examination tests intended to identify radicular compression due to LDH have poor diagnostic power&#44; especially if they are used alone&#46; A subsequent meta-analysis published by Al Nezari et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a> on the value of examination of the peripheral nervous system to diagnose LDH and accompanying radiculopathy concluded that the various examination-based diagnostic tests had low sensitivity&#44; moderate specificity and limited diagnostic precision&#46; This was essentially due to the lack of standardised diagnostic criteria&#44; variability in interpretation of examination manoeuvres and the complex aetiopathology of LDH with radiculopathy&#46;</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Regarding the predictive capacity of examination-based tests and manoeuvres&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> those which provide greatest diagnostic <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">sensitivity</span> for radicular compression are an ipsilateral Las&#232;gue&#39;s sign &#40;92&#37;&#41;&#44; the typical radicular distribution pattern &#40;89&#37;&#41; and lower limb pain of greater severity than low back pain &#40;82&#37;&#41;&#46; Those which provide greatest diagnostic <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">specificity</span> are impairment of tendon stretch reflexes &#40;93&#37;&#59; except in L5 radiculopathy&#44; in which none is impaired&#41;&#44; paresis &#40;93&#37;&#41; and a crossed Las&#232;gue&#39;s sign &#40;90&#37;&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The clinical experience of the spinal surgeon provides the intuitive idea that a medical history concerning the qualities of the pain &#40;location&#44; time since onset&#44; triggering factors&#41; and the psycho-socio-occupational context of the patient &#40;prolonged unemployment&#44; prior depression or anxiety&#44; litigation in progress or likely&#44; etc&#46;&#41; provides much more information on the actual condition of a patient with sciatica due to LDH than&#44; for example&#44; confirmation of the absence of a reflex or the presence of a crossed Las&#232;gue&#39;s sign&#46; This diagnostic impression may be crucial when obtaining a satisfactory result following a possible indication for surgery&#46; MRI and CT scanning confirm the side and level of LDH and rule out other local causes of sciatic pain&#46; However&#44; they do not seem to correlate with the clinical condition of the patient and&#44; in fact&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">incidental</span> bulging disc and disc protrusions are common in asymptomatic patients&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0525"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> The interpretation of these incidental findings and the clinical value assigned to them may directly affect the clinical course of patients who may undergo tests or procedures that are in theory unnecessary and not free of morbidity&#44; in what Deyo called a &#8220;cascade effect&#8221;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0595"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43&#44;44</span></a></p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Electromyography &#40;EMG&#41; also does not seem to provide useful information for therapeutic decision-making in patients with sciatica and LDH&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> The examination finding of acute cauda equina syndrome &#40;paresis&#44; saddle anaesthesia&#44; incontinence&#41; caused by disc extrusion is considered to be a red flag that requires emergency treatment &#40;in the first 24&#8211;48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h following the onset of symptoms&#41; in order to minimise the likelihood of neurological sequelae&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0555"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Evidence-based treatment of lumbar disc hernia</span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Conservative versus surgical treatment</span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The well-known <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Maine Lumbar Spine Study</span>&#44; by Atlas et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0605"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a> published in 1996&#44; compared the clinical results with respect to relief of sciatic pain caused by disc hernia of surgically treated patients versus conservatively treated patients&#46; This was a non-randomised prospective cohort study on 507 patients&#46; Although the surgical group achieved better outcomes after one year&#44; the effect on the return to work was similar in the two groups&#44; and patients with less serious symptoms benefited to a limited extent from surgical treatment&#46; Updates to this study after 5 years<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0610"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a> and after 10 years<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0615"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a> have confirmed the long-lasting effectiveness of surgical treatment&#44; although surgical treatment has not been demonstrated to be clearly superior to conservative treatment in terms of management of the predominant symptom&#44; return to work&#44; economic compensation and degree of disability&#46; The authors of the study concluded that&#44; in patients who are to undergo an elective discectomy&#44; it is advisable to propose an individualised treatment plan that incorporates clinical findings as well as the preferences and expectations of the patient&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0615"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a></p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Very few clinical trial studies have compared surgery &#40;generally open discectomy or some sort of microdiscectomy&#41; to conservative treatment &#40;analgesic medication and some sort of physical therapy&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0425"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9&#8211;13</span></a> None used a sham surgery group&#44; and all&#44; including the study by Atlas et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0615"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a> had a relatively high percentage of cross-over&#46; In general&#44; all trials found that surgical treatment had a significant advantage over conservative treatment with respect to speed of relief of sciatic pain&#46; This effect was weakened or lost after the first year&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0425"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9&#8211;12</span></a> Surgery was capable of shortening pain duration by a factor of 3 although&#44; after one year&#44; 95&#37; were free of pain in both groups&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0425"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> It is interesting that patients who underwent surgery early and patients who switched to the surgical treatment group from the conservative treatment group &#40;thus undergoing late surgery&#41; obtained similar favourable results following the procedure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0425"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> This finding was corroborated by the SPORT study&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0430"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> It was also recently supported and confirmed in two other systematic reviews&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0620"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48&#44;49</span></a> In terms of medical treatment&#44; only epidural injections of corticosteroids have been shown to be a moderately effective option in patients with persistent and disabling sciatica&#46; However&#44; they do not seem to decrease the likelihood of a subsequent procedure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a></p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Therefore&#44; in patients with symptomatic disc hernia&#44; both surgery and conservative treatment are reasonable options&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> and the choice of treatment should ideally take into consideration the expectations of the patient with respect to the swiftness of pain relief&#44; the surgical morbidity that he or she is willing to assume&#44; his or her personal and family circumstances&#44; the effectiveness and tolerance of analgesic medication and the influence of prior comorbidities&#46; According to Deyo et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0630"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50</span></a> good information is very important in allowing the patient to actively participate in the indication for his or her own treatment&#46;</p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In summary&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">emergency</span> or <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">priority</span> surgery is recommended in cases of LDH with a serious or progressive neurological defect&#44; especially in cauda equina syndrome&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Elective</span> surgery is an option in patients with radicular pain which is consistent with neuroimaging data in terms of side and level and which does not substantially improve after 6 weeks&#46; Although surgery provides faster relief compared to conservative treatment&#44; this effect is diluted in the medium and long term&#44; with results similar to conservative treatment after the first year&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#tbl0010">Tables 2 and 3</a> summarise the most significant characteristics of surgical and conservative treatment in LDH&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0015"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Surgery timing and deficit recovery</span><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is a common practice to provide surgical treatment to patients whose pain does not improve after 6 weeks of conservative treatment&#46; Early LDH surgery does not seem to provide a benefit in terms of perioperative morbidity or recurrence rate&#59; however&#44; it does seem to provide a benefit in terms of pain duration&#46; Patients who undergo surgery late&#44; with no serious radiculopathy&#44; obtain results similar to patients who undergo surgery early&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0425"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> This is probably true for the first 6 months&#44; after which the results of delayed surgery appear to worsen&#44; according to a recent systematic review&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0635"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">51</span></a></p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">According to a 2000 meta-analysis by Ahn et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0555"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> patients with acute cauda equina syndrome should undergo surgery early &#40;before 24&#8211;48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#41; in order to improve the likelihood of recovery of sphincter control&#46; However&#44; the most recent study by Gleave and Macfarlane<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0640"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52</span></a> cast doubt on the usefulness of early decompression in recovery from urinary incontinence&#46; According to the authors of this study&#44; this type of procedure tends to require a higher degree of surgical exposure than that required for a simple microdiscectomy&#44; as it tends to be performed on large extruded central discs&#44; which could increase the intraoperative morbidity rate&#46; In the opinion of these authors&#44; indicating these operations on an emergency basis very often means performing them under suboptimal conditions&#44; which may not translate to a higher rate of neurological recovery&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0640"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52</span></a></p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A meta-analysis by DeLong et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0645"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">53</span></a> on studies regarding cauda equina syndrome due to LDH up to 2007&#44; again found that early surgical treatment provided a benefit in terms of recovery of sphincter control &#40;worse outcome when surgery was performed after 36&#8211;72<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#41;&#46; This same study recommended distinguishing between cauda equina syndrome with urinary retention and incomplete cauda equina syndrome &#40;which is associated with a better postoperative prognosis&#41;&#46; A review by Gardner et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0650"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">54</span></a> of studies up to 2011 confirmed that incomplete cauda equina syndrome had a better prognosis than cauda equina syndrome with urinary retention&#44; and recommended surgical decompression by an experienced surgeon <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">as soon as possible</span>&#46; It also advised performing emergency magnetic resonance imaging in cases of incomplete cauda equina syndrome and emphasised the need to prevent incomplete cauda equina from progressing to complete cauda equina syndrome&#44; especially in a patient already under medical supervision&#44; in order to decrease the likelihood of a permanent deficit and medical litigation&#44; very common in these cases&#46;</p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A study by Alentado et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0655"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">55</span></a> found that the ideal period to indicate surgery for lumbar radiculopathy was after 4&#8211;8 weeks of conservative treatment&#44; given that natural history studies have shown that around 70&#37; of patients with lumbar radiculopathy improve within the first 4 weeks from the onset of symptoms&#46; According to a systematic review by Balaji et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">56</span></a> the motor deficit of patients with radiculopathy due to LDH was completely recovered in 38&#46;4&#37; of patients who underwent surgery&#44; versus 32&#37; of patients who were treated conservatively&#46; For these authors&#44; the factors that seem to significantly influence the prognosis of radiculopathy are age and degree of motor impairment&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0110">Comparison of the various surgical techniques</span><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Studies comparing the outcomes of the different surgical techniques for LDH have not been able to demonstrate significant differences in favour of one technique in particular&#44; nor have they been able to demonstrate any technique to be clearly superior to simple discectomy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0620"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48&#44;57</span></a> To date&#44; solid evidence in favour of MIS techniques has also not been able to be demonstrated&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0620"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></a> None of a variety of techniques&#8212;including percutaneous discectomy&#44; laser discectomy&#44; chemonucleolysis and endoscopic transforaminal discectomy&#8212;has been reliably demonstrated to be better than any other&#44; and many have gradually been abandoned&#46; It has not even been possible to demonstrate significant differences in long-term results between macrodiscectomy and microdiscectomy&#44; beyond surgical time&#44; blood loss and length of hospital stay &#40;all of these differences have been minimal&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0670"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">58</span></a> Furthermore&#44; no significant difference has been demonstrated in terms of pain relief if an operating microscope was used or not used in the procedure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0675"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">59</span></a> In a randomised trial on 40 patients conducted by Righesso et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0680"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">60</span></a> microendoscopic discectomy required more surgical time&#44; even though it required a smaller skin incision and a shorter hospital stay compared to open discectomy&#46; However&#44; none of these parameters affected the overall result&#44; which was very good in both groups&#46; Even so&#44; according to Teli et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0685"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">61</span></a> it seems that more complications &#40;unintentional durotomies&#44; radicular injuries and recurrences&#41; arise&#44; and endoscopic microdiscectomies represent a higher cost compared to open techniques&#46; Although there is less surgical trauma in endoscopic discectomy&#44; the clinical results are similar to the open technique&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0690"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62</span></a></p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A meta-analysis by Dasenbrock et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0695"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">63</span></a> from 2012 concluded that open techniques and MIS achieve equivalent and substantial relief of sciatic pain&#44; and affirmed that the key is in appropriate decompression of the root and not in the technique that is used to achieve it&#46; These researchers also described more incidental durotomies in MIS techniques&#44; although overall morbidity was similar&#46; A Cochrane review published in 2014 by Rasouli et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0700"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">64</span></a> comparing MIS techniques to classic open microdiscectomy or discectomy confirmed that differences with respect to relief of sciatic pain are minimal and recognised the potential advantages of MIS techniques in relation to rate of surgical wound infections and average length of stay&#46; Even so&#44; these differences are too still modest or controversial to generally recommend replacing classic techniques with MIS techniques&#46; A third meta-analysis published in 2014 by Kamper et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0705"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">65</span></a> compared the open technique to two modalities of MIS discectomy &#40;interlaminar and transforaminal&#41; obtaining similar clinical results &#40;with moderate&#8211;low evidence&#41;&#46; The interlaminar technique seemed to require a few more minutes of surgical time&#44; resulted in somewhat less blood loss&#44; reduced length of stay to 1&#46;5 days on average and did not have a higher rate of complications or require further surgery&#46;</p><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Concerning tubular MIS techniques&#44; a randomised clinical trial on 328 patients published by Arts et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0710"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">66</span></a> in 2009 did not show the tubular technique to have an advantage over microdiscectomy using the Roland&#8211;Morris disability questionnaire&#46; However&#44; from the subjective point of view of the patient&#44; it did show worse results with respect to management of low back and radiating pain&#46; In a randomised trial on 100 patients published by Franke et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0715"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span></a> in 2009&#44; the tubular MIS technique obtained equal medium-term clinical results to simple microdiscectomy&#44; without demonstrating a higher rate of complications&#46; Recently&#44; Bhatia et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0720"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">68</span></a> in a similar non-randomised study on 148 patients&#44; obtained equivalent results in patients who underwent surgery using the tubular technique versus microdiscectomy compared to the pain control group after one year&#46; In addition&#44; the cohort that underwent surgery using a tubular technique was found to have a shorter hospital stay and a faster return to work&#44; although it also had a higher rate of incidental durotomies &#40;10&#46;4&#37; in early tubular discectomies and 7&#46;4&#37; in late tubular discectomies&#44; versus 6&#46;5&#37; in microdiscectomy&#41;&#44; with differences that were not clinically or statistically significant&#46;</p><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A systematic review by Jacobs et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0470"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> argued that using an operating microscope provides better lighting and facilitates training of residents&#46; The choice of the type of discectomy and the decision to use or not use a microscope depends on the training and experience of the surgeon and the availability of resources&#46; At present&#44; almost all centres specialised in spine surgery use some method of specific lighting and magnification&#46; In summary&#44; any form of discectomy other than open discectomy or discectomy performed with a microscope must still demonstrate its superiority in clinical trials&#46; Many of those techniques &#40;such as percutaneous discectomy&#44; intradiscal electrotherapy and chemonucleolysis&#41; have gradually lapsed into disuse&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0470"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#44;21</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0115">The problem of indication&#58; is fusion required&#63;</span><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Given that the type of surgical technique in LDH does not seem to significantly influence the clinical result in the medium term and the morbidity is similar among the various techniques&#44; it is logical to think that efforts should be concentrated on precisely determining which subgroups of patients benefit most from LDH surgery&#46; The data mentioned above lead to the conclusion that in surgical management of LDH&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">what matters most is the indication and not the technique that is used&#46;</span></p><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The reality is that the indication for lumbar spine surgery has constantly increased in recent decades&#44; even when adjusting the population for age&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> while the associated costs have gone up relentlessly&#46; Only coronary bypass&#44; hip prosthesis&#44; Caesarean and tracheostomy surgery are associated with higher aggregate costs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> In 2004&#44; in the United States 242&#44;000 laminectomies&#8211;discectomies were performed with admission &#40;plus an additional 25&#37; which were performed on an outpatient basis&#41; with an approximate hospital cost of 5 billion dollars&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> Spinal fusion surgeries&#44; in a similar number&#44; practically tripled that cost&#46; In theory&#44; pure LDH does not require added fusion techniques&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#8211;4</span></a> However&#44; an update to the clinical practice guidelines published in 2014 in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Journal of Neurosurgery&#58; Spine</span> opened the door to adding fusion techniques &#40;with a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">weak</span> level of recommendation&#41; in LDH with evidence of instability&#44; chronic low back pain and&#47;or serious degenerative changes&#44; or if the patient engages in heavy manual labour&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0725"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">69</span></a> This clarification is important&#44; as it scientifically <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">legitimises</span> the indication for arthrodesis in the majority of cases&#44; even when this indication is not supported in high-quality studies&#46;</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The current consensus recommends surgery only in patients with LDH who have serious motor defects or acute cauda equina syndrome and patients with associated serious trauma&#44; who account for a relatively small percentage of all disc hernias&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> In all other situations&#44; the indication is relative and depends on multiple factors&#46; The information provided to the patient on the natural history is key&#46; The fact that some countries or regions &#40;or sites&#41; indicate the procedure much more often than others&#44; even by a factor of 8 for laminectomies and discectomies&#44; and up to a factor of 20 for spinal fusions&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0460"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> bespeaks the magnitude of the problem from an epidemiological point of view&#46; Various authors warn about the need to &#8220;bring order&#8221; to the indication for degenerative spine disease surgery in general and LDH surgery in particular&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0395"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;5&#44;14</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0120">Conflicts of interest in spine surgery</span><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Given the enormous prevalence in the general population of degenerative spine disease&#44; including disc conditions&#44; it is to be expected that the pharmaceutical industry has focused a great deal of its commercial attention and potential for research and development on this subgroup of diseases&#46; There are many medications and implants approved for use in degenerative spine disease&#46; However&#44; as seen&#44; the references that support the use of the majority of these advances are limited or controversial&#44; as in the specific case of LDH&#46;</p><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Some directors of prestigious high-impact biomedical journals have warned of the threat posed by commercial pressure from major pharmaceutical companies to the impartiality of publications and the fraudulent publication bias they engage in to promote their products&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0730"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">70&#44;71</span></a> According to G&#248;tzsche&#44; this pressure could essentially be applied through indirect funding of a publication&#44; by means of mass purchasing of supplements&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0475"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a></p><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For example&#44; in 2009&#44; the director of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Journal of Spinal Disorders and Techniques</span>&#44; a North American orthopaedic spine surgeon&#44; received more than 2 million dollars in consulting fees from the multinational company Medtronic &#40;plus another 20 million dollars in patent rights&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0740"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">72</span></a> That journal published 13 studies on 780 patients treated with a vertebral implant for spinal fusion&#46; All were favourable to the device&#44; and none reported adverse reactions&#46; Subsequent documents from the United States FDA showed that adverse effects occurred in 10&#8211;50&#37; of patients&#44; and some of them were potentially fatal&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0745"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">73</span></a></p><p id="par0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">An example of insufficiently substantiated use in the literature of a spinal implant is the placement of interspinous process spacers in patients with pure LDH&#46; The benefits of these systems in cases of mild foraminal stenosis with hyperlordosis&#44; for which they were designed&#44; are doubtful&#46; According to a recent meta-analysis by Wu et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0750"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">74</span></a> when this technique is compared to classic decompression of the canal&#44; patients in whom an interspinous process device is implanted did not experience significantly more improvement in their pain&#46; However&#44; in these patients the rate of further surgery and the cost increased&#46; Despite their widespread use &#40;perhaps already in decline&#41;&#44; in patients with LDH&#44; randomised clinical trials do not support using these devices&#46; Similar things have happened in the past with ozone therapy &#40;also in decline&#41;&#44; and are starting to occur at present with biologic disc regeneration therapy&#44; which is still in the research and development phase&#46;</p><p id="par0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The unethical behaviour of some surgeons&#44; the scientific fraud committed by certain scientific journals&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0755"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">75</span></a> the commercial pressure exerted by pharmaceutical industries and the absence of scientific evidence that provides uniformity of criteria in the indication for the procedure may be among the factors responsible for the major geographic variability that exists when indicating LDH surgery and implant use&#46; When the pharmaceutical industry has demonstrated irregular or outright illegal behaviour&#44; enormous fines have often been imposed in legal rulings or settlements &#40;a single pharmaceutical company has been fined up to 2&#46;3 billion dollars&#41;&#46; These fines have been paid in part with the profits obtained from the restricted or prohibited medicinal product&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0760"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0125">Conclusions</span><p id="par0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The natural history of sciatica due to LDH is generally favourable&#46; Therefore&#44; at least 6 weeks should elapse before imaging tests are performed or surgical treatment is considered&#46; In the vast majority of cases involving surgery&#44; said surgery is considered to be elective&#46; Therefore&#44; the patient must be provided with true and detailed information on the natural history of LDH&#46; The patient should actively participate in surgical decision-making based on his or her own expectations with respect to pain resolution and assuming a low but real morbidity rate&#44; as well as a percentage of ineffectiveness of the procedure&#46;</p><p id="par0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">LDH surgery shortens pain duration compared to conservative treatment&#44; although the effect is diluted after one year&#46; There does not seem to be any therapeutic modality&#44; medication or physical therapy that is superior to all others with respect to pain management or recovery from radiculopathy&#46; In addition&#44; there is no surgical technique with significantly better results than simple discectomy or microdiscectomy&#46; The problem appears to lie not in the choice of technique but the indication&#46;</p><p id="par0230" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The enormous geographic variability in the use of surgery for LDH and for degenerative spine problems in general &#40;especially if it is combined with any fusion technique&#41; indicates that this operation is among the worst indicated of those performed&#46; It would be advisable to remember international consensuses on the indication for surgery in LDH and apply them more strictly&#46;</p><p id="par0235" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The pharmaceutical industry has an undeniable and marked influence on LDH surgery due to the major prevalence of the disease and the enormous associated direct and indirect costs&#46; The spine surgeon risks falling into serious conflicts of interest due in part to this pressure&#46; An attitude on the part of the surgeon that respects the precepts of EBM&#44; highly ethical and unbiased behaviour on the part of biomedical publications&#44; and a policy on the part of the pharmaceutical industry that does not focus on incentivising the overuse of certain techniques could promote more rational&#44; efficient and ethical use of healthcare resources&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0080" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0130">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0240" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Natural history of lumbar disc hernia"
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              "identificador" => "sec0030"
              "titulo" => "Usual clinical course of sciatica and radiculopathy"
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              "identificador" => "sec0035"
              "titulo" => "Spontaneous regression of protruded&#44; extruded and sequestered discs"
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          "titulo" => "Role of neurological examination in lumbar disc hernia"
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          "titulo" => "Evidence-based treatment of lumbar disc hernia"
          "secciones" => array:4 [
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              "identificador" => "sec0050"
              "titulo" => "Conservative versus surgical treatment"
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              "titulo" => "Surgery timing and deficit recovery"
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              "titulo" => "Comparison of the various surgical techniques"
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              "titulo" => "The problem of indication&#58; is fusion required&#63;"
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          "titulo" => "Conflicts of interest in spine surgery"
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    "fechaAceptado" => "2016-11-24"
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            0 => "Lumbar disc herniation"
            1 => "Sciatica"
            2 => "Diskectomy"
            3 => "Micro-discectomy"
            4 => "Conflict of interest"
            5 => "Natural history"
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            0 => "Hernia discal lumbar"
            1 => "Ci&#225;tica"
            2 => "Discectom&#237;a"
            3 => "Microdiscectom&#237;a"
            4 => "Conflicto de intereses"
            5 => "Historia natural"
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        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Introduction</span><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Indication for surgery in lumbar disc herniation &#40;LDH&#41; varies widely depending on the geographical area&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0015">Development</span><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">A literature review is presented on the natural history&#44; role of physical examination&#44; timing of surgery&#44; evidence-based treatment&#44; and conflicts of interests in LDH&#46; Surgery is shown to provide significant faster relief of pain compared to conservative therapy&#44; although the effect fades after a year&#46; There is no treatment modality better than the rest in terms of pain control and neurological recovery&#44; nor is there a surgical technique clearly superior to simple discectomy&#46; The lack of sound scientific evidence on the surgical indication may contribute to its great geographical variability&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0020">Conclusions</span><p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Since LDH has a favourable natural history&#44; neuroimaging and surgery should not be considered until after a 6-week period&#46; It is necessary to specify and respect the surgical indications for LDH&#44; avoiding conflicts of interests&#46;</p></span>"
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      "es" => array:3 [
        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Introducci&#243;n</span><p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La cirug&#237;a de la hernia discal lumbar &#40;HDL&#41; es una de las intervenciones con mayor variabilidad geogr&#225;fica en su indicaci&#243;n&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Desarrollo</span><p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Se realiza una revisi&#243;n bibliogr&#225;fica sobre la historia natural&#44; el papel de la exploraci&#243;n neurol&#243;gica&#44; el <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">timing</span> de la cirug&#237;a&#44; el tratamiento basado en la evidencia y el conflicto de intereses relativos a la HDL&#46; La cirug&#237;a acorta significativamente el tiempo de dolor respecto al tratamiento conservador&#44; aunque este efecto se diluye a partir del a&#241;o&#46; No parece existir una modalidad terap&#233;utica superior al resto respecto del control del dolor o de la recuperaci&#243;n neurol&#243;gica&#44; ni una t&#233;cnica quir&#250;rgica claramente superior a la discectom&#237;a simple&#46; La gran variabilidad geogr&#225;fica puede deberse a una ausencia de criterios cient&#237;ficos s&#243;lidos en la indicaci&#243;n&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Conclusiones</span><p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La historia natural de la HDL es favourable y debe respetarse un m&#237;nimo de 6<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>semanas antes de indicar pruebas de imagen o considerar la cirug&#237;a&#46; Es preciso concretar y respetar la indicaci&#243;n quir&#250;rgica&#44; evitando los conflictos de intereses&#46;</p></span>"
        "secciones" => array:3 [
          0 => array:2 [
            "identificador" => "abst0020"
            "titulo" => "Introducci&#243;n"
          ]
          1 => array:2 [
            "identificador" => "abst0025"
            "titulo" => "Desarrollo"
          ]
          2 => array:2 [
            "identificador" => "abst0030"
            "titulo" => "Conclusiones"
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "NotaPie" => array:1 [
      0 => array:2 [
        "etiqueta" => "&#9734;"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Please cite this article as&#58; Delgado PD&#44; Rodr&#237;guez-Salazar A&#44; Mart&#237;n-Alonso J&#44; Mart&#237;n-Velasco V&#46; Hernia discal lumbar&#58; historia natural&#44; papel de la exploraci&#243;n&#44; timing de la cirug&#237;a&#44; opciones de tratamiento y conflicto de intereses&#46; Neurocirugia&#46; 2017&#59;28&#58;124&#8211;134&#46;</p>"
      ]
    ]
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                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Enzyme chemonucleolysis with chymopapain&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Intradiscal electrotherapy &#40;IDET&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Percutaneous discectomy&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Laser discectomy&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Adcon-L&#44; anti-adhesion&#47;fibrosis barrier gel&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Stand-alone intersomatic spacers&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Vax-D&#44; DRX9000 and similar traction&#47;decompression systems&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Therapies used and abandoned or in disuse in the treatment of disc hernia&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0485"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a></p>"
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        "etiqueta" => "Table 2"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
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          0 => array:3 [
            "identificador" => "at2"
            "detalle" => "Table "
            "rol" => "short"
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        ]
        "tabla" => array:1 [
          "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [
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                  <table border="0" frame="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Indication&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Elective indication&#58;</span> in patients with sciatic pain or signs of radiculopathy due to compression of a nerve root&#44; confirmed by MRI or CT scanning&#44; that lasts at least 6 weeks and does not respond to conservative treatment<br><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Relative indication&#58;</span> in patients with a motor neurological defect&#44; although there is no solid evidence of a significantly higher percentage of recovery in patients who undergo surgery versus patients who do not &#40;overall at least 30&#37; show motor deficit recovery&#41;<br><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Absolute indication&#58;</span> in patients with cauda equina syndrome there is a greater likelihood of recovery of sphincter control if surgery is performed before 48&#8211;72<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Results&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Efficacy&#44; results and recovery&#58; 85&#8211;90&#37; have pain resolution in the immediate postoperative period or in up to 4 weeks&#46; Just 5&#37; have persistent pain after one year&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Techniques&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Open discectomy or various types of microdiscectomy &#40;trend towards using less and less invasive approaches with some method of illumination and magnification&#41;&#46; Around one third return to work within one week and 97&#37; return to work within 2 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Recurrences&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Approximately 6&#37; had undergone further surgery after one year and 13&#37; had undergone further surgery after 4 years&#44; with major local variations &#40;10&#8211;20&#37;&#41; due to matters having to do with the surgeon&#44; patient screening and the institution&#47;centre&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Complications&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Mortality 0&#46;6 per thousand procedures after 60 days&#46; Neurological worsening in 1&#8211;3&#37;&#44; direct radicular injury in 1&#8211;2&#37;&#44; surgical wound complications in 1&#8211;2&#37;&#44; incidental durotomy in 3&#37;&#44; chronic pain due to scarring or peridural fibrosis&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Arthrodesis&#63;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">In general&#44; neither arthrodesis nor instrumentation is used in a first procedure in simple LDH&#46; It is sometimes used in second procedures where advanced disc disease or associated spondylolisthesis is found&#46; The operative morbidity of arthrodesis increases with the number of spaces secured as well as the need for further surgery&#46; It may predispose the patient to subsequent impairment of the adjacent segment&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Variability&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Enormous geographic variability &#40;by a factor of 8&#8211;20&#41;&#58; overuse in certain areas compared to others&#44; especially when any fusion technique is used&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Surgical treatment of sciatica due to lumbar disc hernia&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#8211;13</span></a></p>"
        ]
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        "mostrarFloat" => true
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          0 => array:3 [
            "identificador" => "at3"
            "detalle" => "Table "
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                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Indication&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Treatment indicated from the start in all patients with sciatica due to lumbar disc hernia&#44; except in those with red-flag signs and symptoms such as acute cauda equina syndrome<br>Treatment of choice indicated in the first 6 weeks in the absence of major neurological defects&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Results&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">At least one third improve after 2 weeks of treatment and more than 90&#37; improve after 4&#8211;6 weeks&#46; Due to the good natural history of the disease&#44; some therapies considered to be effective &#40;bed rest&#44; corticosteroids&#44; traction&#41; have not clearly demonstrated their effectiveness in clinical trials&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Techniques&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">NSAIDs seem to decrease low back pain in the short term with doubtful efficacy in sciatica&#46; Opiates are only recommended on a short-term basis in very severe pain<br>Doubtful or insufficient evidence in favour of the use of systemic steroids&#44; antiepileptics&#44; antidepressants or muscle relaxants in sciatica<br>Epidural injections of corticosteroids are an option starting from the sixth week and seem to slightly improve pain and functionality in the short term&#44; although they do not reduce the rate of subsequent procedures<br>Likewise&#44; supervised physical activity provides limited pain relief&#46; Chiropractic care also does not provide lasting relief and is associated with a minimal rate of neurological worsening&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Conservative treatment of sciatica due to lumbar disc hernia&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#8211;6&#44;8&#44;13&#44;30&#8211;32</span></a></p>"
        ]
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    ]
    "bibliografia" => array:2 [
      "titulo" => "References"
      "seccion" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "bibs0005"
          "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:76 [
            0 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0385"
              "etiqueta" => "1"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Herniated lumbar intervertebral disk"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:2 [
                            0 => "R&#46;A&#46; Deyo"
                            1 => "S&#46;K&#46; Mirza"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1056/NEJMcp1512658"
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
                        "tituloSerie" => "N Engl J Med"
                        "fecha" => "2016"
                        "volumen" => "374"
                        "paginaInicial" => "1763"
                        "paginaFinal" => "1772"
                        "link" => array:1 [
                          0 => array:2 [
                            "url" => "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27144851"
                            "web" => "Medline"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            1 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0390"
              "etiqueta" => "2"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Sciatica"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:2 [
                            0 => "A&#46;H&#46; Roper"
                            1 => "R&#46;D&#46; Zafonte"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Revista" => array:5 [
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            ]
            2 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0395"
              "etiqueta" => "3"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
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                      "titulo" => "Epidemiology of neck and back pain"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:3 [
                            0 => "A&#46; Nachemson"
                            1 => "G&#46; Waddell"
                            2 => "A&#46;I&#46; Norlund"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "LibroEditado" => array:4 [
                        "titulo" => "Neck and back pain&#46; The scientific evidence of causes&#44; diagnosis and treatment"
                        "paginaInicial" => "165"
                        "paginaFinal" => "188"
                        "serieFecha" => "2000"
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            3 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0400"
              "etiqueta" => "4"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Natural history of radiculopathy"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:1 [
                            0 => "E&#46; Casey"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1016/j.pmr.2010.10.001"
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
                        "tituloSerie" => "Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am"
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                        "link" => array:1 [
                          0 => array:2 [
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            4 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0405"
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                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
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                            0 => "R&#46;A&#46; Deyo"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1056/NEJMp078052"
                      "Revista" => array:7 [
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                            "web" => "Medline"
                          ]
                        ]
                        "itemHostRev" => array:3 [
                          "pii" => "S0140673605678610"
                          "estado" => "S300"
                          "issn" => "01406736"
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                ]
              ]
            ]
            5 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0410"
              "etiqueta" => "6"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Lack of effectiveness of bed rest for sciatica"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
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                            1 => "M&#46;C&#46; de Krom"
                            2 => "J&#46;T&#46; Wilmink"
                            3 => "A&#46;D&#46; Kester"
                            4 => "J&#46;A&#46; Knottnerus"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1056/NEJM199902113400602"
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
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            6 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0415"
              "etiqueta" => "7"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Comparative clinical effectiveness of management strategies for sciatica&#58; systematic review and network meta-analyses"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => true
                          "autores" => array:6 [
                            0 => "R&#46;A&#46; Lewis"
                            1 => "N&#46;H&#46; Williams"
                            2 => "A&#46;J&#46; Sutton"
                            3 => "K&#46; Burton"
                            4 => "N&#46;U&#46; Din"
                            5 => "H&#46;E&#46; Matar"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1016/j.spinee.2013.08.049"
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
                        "tituloSerie" => "Spine J"
                        "fecha" => "2015"
                        "volumen" => "15"
                        "paginaInicial" => "1461"
                        "paginaFinal" => "1477"
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                          0 => array:2 [
                            "url" => "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24412033"
                            "web" => "Medline"
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                        ]
                      ]
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              ]
            ]
            7 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0420"
              "etiqueta" => "8"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Effectiveness of conservative treatments for the lumbosacral radicular syndrome&#58; a systematic review"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:6 [
                            0 => "P&#46;A&#46; Luijsterburg"
                            1 => "A&#46;P&#46; Verhagen"
                            2 => "R&#46;W&#46; Ostelo"
                            3 => "T&#46;A&#46; van Os"
                            4 => "W&#46;C&#46; Peul"
                            5 => "B&#46;W&#46; Koes"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
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Vol. 28. Issue 3.
Pages 124-134 (May - June 2017)
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Vol. 28. Issue 3.
Pages 124-134 (May - June 2017)
Review article
Lumbar disc herniation: Natural history, role of physical examination, timing of surgery, treatment options and conflicts of interests
Hernia discal lumbar: historia natural, papel de la exploración, timing de la cirugía, opciones de tratamiento y conflicto de intereses
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Pedro David Delgado-López
Corresponding author
pedrodl@yahoo.com

Corresponding author.
, Antonio Rodríguez-Salazar, Javier Martín-Alonso, Vicente Martín-Velasco
Servicio de Neurocirugía, Hospital Universitario de Burgos, Burgos, Spain
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Tables (3)
Table 1. Therapies used and abandoned or in disuse in the treatment of disc hernia.21
Table 2. Surgical treatment of sciatica due to lumbar disc hernia.1–13
Table 3. Conservative treatment of sciatica due to lumbar disc hernia.1–6,8,13,30–32
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Abstract
Introduction

Indication for surgery in lumbar disc herniation (LDH) varies widely depending on the geographical area.

Development

A literature review is presented on the natural history, role of physical examination, timing of surgery, evidence-based treatment, and conflicts of interests in LDH. Surgery is shown to provide significant faster relief of pain compared to conservative therapy, although the effect fades after a year. There is no treatment modality better than the rest in terms of pain control and neurological recovery, nor is there a surgical technique clearly superior to simple discectomy. The lack of sound scientific evidence on the surgical indication may contribute to its great geographical variability.

Conclusions

Since LDH has a favourable natural history, neuroimaging and surgery should not be considered until after a 6-week period. It is necessary to specify and respect the surgical indications for LDH, avoiding conflicts of interests.

Keywords:
Lumbar disc herniation
Sciatica
Diskectomy
Micro-discectomy
Conflict of interest
Natural history
Resumen
Introducción

La cirugía de la hernia discal lumbar (HDL) es una de las intervenciones con mayor variabilidad geográfica en su indicación.

Desarrollo

Se realiza una revisión bibliográfica sobre la historia natural, el papel de la exploración neurológica, el timing de la cirugía, el tratamiento basado en la evidencia y el conflicto de intereses relativos a la HDL. La cirugía acorta significativamente el tiempo de dolor respecto al tratamiento conservador, aunque este efecto se diluye a partir del año. No parece existir una modalidad terapéutica superior al resto respecto del control del dolor o de la recuperación neurológica, ni una técnica quirúrgica claramente superior a la discectomía simple. La gran variabilidad geográfica puede deberse a una ausencia de criterios científicos sólidos en la indicación.

Conclusiones

La historia natural de la HDL es favourable y debe respetarse un mínimo de 6semanas antes de indicar pruebas de imagen o considerar la cirugía. Es preciso concretar y respetar la indicación quirúrgica, evitando los conflictos de intereses.

Palabras clave:
Hernia discal lumbar
Ciática
Discectomía
Microdiscectomía
Conflicto de intereses
Historia natural

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